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Chapter 6 - ANT2410
Making A Living
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| form of food production in which fields are in permanent cultivation using plows, animals, & techniques of soil & water control | agriculture |
| yield per person per hour of labor invested | efficiency |
| food-getting strategy that does not involve food production/domestication of animals & that involves no conscious effort to alter environment | foraging (hunting and gathering) |
| integration of resources, labor, & capital into a global network | globalization |
| production of plants using a simple, non-mechanized technology; fields are not used continuously | horticulture |
| replacement of human & animal energy by machines in the process of production of food & other goods | industrialism |
| production technology that adapts mechanized manufacturing processes in production, processing, & distribution of food | industrialized agriculture |
| form of pastoralism in which the whole social group (men, women, children) & their animals move in search of pasture | nomadic pastoralism |
| food-getting strategy that depends on care of domesticated herd animals | pastoralism |
| society that reckons descent through male line | patrilineal |
| rural cultivators who produce for subsistence of their households but are also integrated into larger, complex state societies | peasants |
| number of people inhabiting a given area of land | population density |
| yield per person per unit of land | productivity |
| tropical woodland characterized by high rainfall & dense canopy of broad-leaved evergreen trees | rain forest |
| settled, living in one place | sedentary |
| way a society transforms environmental resources into food | subsistence strategy |
| form of cultivation in which a field is cleared by felling the trees & burning the brush | swidden cultivation |
| swidden is __ of horticulture | typical |
| swidden cultivation is also called | slash and burn |
| form of pastoralism in which herd animals are moved regularly throughout the year to different areas as pasture becomes available | transhumant pastoralism |
| seek to understand effects of: physical environment on human cultures & vice-versa; interrelationships among cultures within environment; & humans changing subsistence strategies in response to challenges/threats to livelihood | ecological anthropologist |
| the natural environment is also a cultural __ | construction |
| __ is related to type of technology used to exploit any particular environment | productivity |
| in aboriginal America the __ __ supported a relatively small population which survived mainly on hunting bison | Great Plains |
| has enabled humans to transform a wide range of materials into sources of usable energy | technological advances |
| human technologies & __ __ have led to great increases in population density | cultural adaptations |
| due to increases in population density, human tech. & cultural adaptations, have greatly intensified __ __ on the environment | human effects |
| up until 10,000 yr ago all humans lived by | fishing, hunting, & collecting vege food |
| foraging sets limits on population __ & __, as well as on __ of social organization in these societies | growth; density; complexity |
| 11-10,000 yr ago human groups in the __ __ began domestication of plants & animals | Old World |
| domestication of plants & animals took place in the __ __ about 10-9,000 years ago | New World |
| domestication of plants/animals allowed support of increased populations, causing sedentary village life to become __ | widespread |
| domestication of plants/animals provided more intensive means of __ & __ __ | cultivation; animal management |
| more intensive means of cultivation & animal management lead to closer coordination/control of __ __ | human labor |
| closer coordination/control of human labor lead to complex social forms, such as | the state |
| within general outline of growing control over environment & increased human population, specific __ & __ conditions explain sequence of events in any particular place | environmental; historical |
| populations such as aboriginal people of __ or the __ never made transition from foraging to food production | Australia; Inuit |
| climate & soil composition, in the __, precluded agriculture | Arctic |
| in fertile valleys of __ aboriginal foraging so productive there was little pressure to make transition to food production | California |
| intro of horses by Spaniards in 16th century led to __ giving up traditional cultivation strategy due to doing so well w/bison hunting | Cheyenne |
| resist abandoning foraging & pastoral way of life because they prefer economic, social, & psychological satisfaction of this lifestyle | current foraging/pastoral populations |
| in current foraging/pastoral populations hunting & pastoralism are highly __ __ | valued occupations |
| current foraging/pastoral populations hunting & pastoralism are intimately connected to a people's __ __ | cultural identity |
| hunting & pastoralism are in some circumstances more __ than agriculture | productive |
| use of chemical __ & __ in industrialized agriculture of food production has greatly increased productivity | pesticides; fertilizers |
| in typical __ __ more than 80% of population directly involved in food production | non-industrialized society |
| today only 1% of the __ population claims farming as primary occupation & only 2% lives on farms | US |
| know names of 100s species of plants/trees; place of each species in web of forest life; importance of vegetal diversity providing animals w/specialized preferred foods; manage resources in diverse, complex, & sophisticated ways | Amazonians of rain forests |
| carefully manage soil, protect ground cover, control humidity, & manage pests in gardens - based on deep understanding of soil, properties of fire, relations of seasons to plant growth, & impact of food-getting activities on environment | Kayapo of Xingu River basin S. America |
| knowledge of medicinal properties of roots, leaves, bulbs & bark of over 30 plants - used by people of S. Africa cure problems headaches, stomachaches, sores/colds, toothache, & intestinal parasites | pastoral Dikale |
| consumer desires & energy needs of industrialized & industrializing nations are the central courses of __ __ today | environmental degradation |
| when the European culture introduced cattle/sheep to Peru they consumed crops of indigenous peoples, __ __ had depended on these crops | Inca Empire |
| European fashions for furs almost destroyed __ __ of fur-bearing animals such as beaver | N. America |
| European consumer demands for __ __ are leading to devastating logging in tropical rainforests | tropical hardwoods |
| European demand for sugar/tobacco resulted in huge areas of __ agriculture, transforming physical environment of Americas | monocrop |
| European demand for sugar/tobacco introduced __ __ to Americas, changing the social environment | African slavery |
| in __ __ of US dam building affected salmon ability to spawn | Pacific Northwest |
| salmon are an important food & also an object of religious awe for the __ __ of the Pacific NW in US | Native Americans |
| resulting from oil consumption & carbon emissions, having harmful effects on many traditional subsistence strategies & potentially catastrophic effects of environment | global warming |
| anthropological approach to each's use & impact on environment | typology of subsistence strategies |
| basic typology of subsistence strategies is broken down into | foraging, pastoralism, horticulture, agriculture, & industrialism |
| each subsistence strategy is a(n) __ __ | ideal type |
| most societies, in particular occurring in last 500 years, practice __ of subsistence strategies | combination |
| dairy & meat products are major part of the | pastoralists' diet |
| agriculture is also known as | intensive cultivation |
| agriculture uses more complex techniques of water/soil control so land is permanently __ & needs no __ period | cultivated; fallow |
| each subsistence strategy __ characteristic level of population density | supports |
| population density supported by a subsistence strategy is the number of persons per __ __ of land | square unit |
| efficiency & productivity tend to be associated with characteristic forms of __ organization & certain __ patterns | social; cultural |
| where local tech. allows only limited exploitation of environment & safe/reliable contraception are unknown may be limited by __ __ that function to space births | cultural practices |
| sexual abstinence, abortion, infanticide, late weaning, & prohibitions on sexual intercourse while child is breast-feeding are ways that cultural practices | space births |
| in addition to limiting population, a society can extend its __ __ by trading | resource base |
| occurs in all types of societies; forms basis of historical/contemporary global economy, inc. all peoples all over world engaging in variety of food production & manufacturing | trade |
| complex hereditary exchange relationship w/Lese; meat, mushrooms, honey, building materials, medicine & agricultural labor for manioc, plantains, peanuts, & rice that is 50% of their diet | Mbuti foragers of Ituri rain forest C. America |
| provided Mbuti w/metal for knives/arrowheads, cotton cloth & aluminum pots | Lese |
| foraging is __ __ includes hunting lrg/sm game, fishing, & collecting various plant foods | diverse strategy |
| use simple tools including digging sticks, spatulas, spears, & bow/arrow; generally live in communities of 20-50 individuals | foragers |
| Arctic foragers depend almost solely on | hunting |
| studies show that women can identify more than 150 species of edible plants & men recognize for than 40 species of edible plants | Ju/'hoansi foragers |
| few of the marginal areas of current-day foragers can support a __ human population | year-round |
| foraging almost always involves __ __ to gain access to food/water | seasonal movement |
| foraging bands tend to have highly __ __ arrangements | flexible social |
| seasonal movement is a strong disincentive for foraging communities to __ material goods | accumulate |
| material possessions of foraging peoples tend to be limited to items | essential to survival |
| people of Great Sandy Desert, Australia; wide range of vegetal foods provided most of diet; can recognize 126 plants serving 138 social, economic, & medicinal functions | Pintupi |
| unreliability of __ __ posed fundamental change to Pintupi | water supplies |
| Pintupi use more than 75 different plants for | edible seeds |
| Pintupi's main constraint on population growth is __ __ __ during the hottest & driest months | scarcity of water |
| Pintupi have population density as low as one person per | 150-200 sq miles |
| most important influence on distance travel, places camp, length of time in one place for Pintupi | availability of food & water |
| wet season for Pintupi; water available, but food scarce & families spread across desert | Dec. - Feb. bring greatest material prosperity for Pintupi; edible fruits collected from 12 different plants & stored |
| Pintupi people live around water holes until | August |
| Pintupi __ __ on plains to attract game & stimulate growth of new grass seeds & tubers for following year | set fires |
| harshest time of year for Pintupi, called "hungry time" | November |
| for Pintupi, if rain does not come by __ foraging ceases almost entirely; average daily intake may be reduce to 800 calories | December |
| beginning in 1920s __ __ tribes began moving to mission/cattle stations, government settlements, & towns around desert fringe due to drought | Australian foraging |
| last Pintupi left the Western Desert in | 1996 |
| estimated that adult Dobe Ju/'hoansi of Kalahari spends average of only 2-1/2 (6) hour days/wk in subsistence activities; women can gather enough in 1 day to feed family for 3 days | Richard Lee |
| most foragers have moved to permanent settlements, by __ or __ pressure in current times | choice; government |
| contemporary foraging bands rely on the __ for much of their food | market |
| found in E Africa (cattle), N Africa (camels), SW Asia (sheep/goats), C. Asia (yak), & sub-Arctic (caribou/reindeer) | major areas of pastoralism |
| w/exception of __ & __ in Peru, herds animals found in Americas were not easily domesticated | llama; alpaca |
| pastoralism can be either __ or __ | transhumant; nomadic |
| transhumant pastoralism is found mainly in | E Africa |
| pastoralism is a __ subsistence strategy | mixed |
| __ pastoralist societies tend to based on patrilineal kinship | nomadic |
| in SW Asia nomadic pastoralist characteristic political organization is __ __ w/powerful leaders allied in regional political networks | supratribal confederations |
| SW Asia nomadic pastoralists' were subordinated to various empires on __ & __ plateaus in the past | Iranian; Anatolian |
| SW Asia nomadic pastoralist, for past 200 yrs, have had to adapt policies set by distant governments of __ __, losing mush of their political/military autonomy | centralized nation-states |
| mixed pastoralist adaptation; SE corner of Iran-Baluchistan; occupies plateau 5000 ft above sea level | Yarahmadzai |
| Yarahmadzai live in small camps of | 5-25 families |
| when info about good pasture becomes available the __ Yarahmadzai camp migrates | entire |
| Yarahmadzai camps migrate anywhere from 5-25 miles in each move, due to __ __ quickly being exhausted | good pasturage |
| Yarahmadzai migrate to areas served by government __ __ to earn money by harvesting grain, due to hot/dry seasons | irrigation projects |
| staple food of Yarahmadzai; main source of protein, fat, calcium, & other nutrients | milk |
| many pastoralists today depend less on consuming __ __ of their herds | direct products |
| many pastoralists today depend more on __ of animals & animal products for cash | sale |
| many nomadic pastoralists are becoming __; pastoral __ in a cash economy | ranchers; specialists |
| highly integrated into national & international trade networks; specialize in selling meat animals to local markets, lambskins to international buyers, & sheep intestines to meet German demand for natural sausage casings | nomads in Afghanistan & Iran |
| critics of __ __ claim pastoralist's desires to increase size of herds leads to collective overgrazing & destruction of grasslands | nomadic pastoralism |
| it is government policies of agriculture than directly/indirectly exacerbate environmental __ | degradation |
| horticulturalist cultivated fields are not use year after year, but remain __ for some time after being cultivated | fallow |
| horticulture produces a lower __ per acre & uses less human __ than agriculture | yield; labor |
| horticulturalists grow enough food to support | local group |
| horticulturalists do not produce surplus that involve groups in larger __ __ with nonagricultural populations | market system |
| horticulturalists populations density does not exceed 150 people per sq mile & village may be | 100-1000 people |
| cultivate maize, beans, & squash in dry lands of NE Arizona | Hopi Indians |
| horticulture is __ in tropical rain forest adaptations of SE Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, some Pacific Islands & Amazon Basin in S America | typical |
| horticulturalists in rain forest adaptions practice | swidden |
| in practice of swidden burned vegetation is allowed to remain on soil, preventing | drying out from the sun |
| in practice of swidden bed of ash acts as a __, returning nutrients to soil | fertilizer |
| swidden cultivator's fields are used 1-5 years then allowed to fallow for period | up to 20 years |
| swidden cultivators require 5-6 times as much __ __ as they are actually cultivating | fallow land |
| swidden cultivation can have __ __ on environment is fields are cultivated before lain fallow for long enough to recover forest growth | deteriorating effect |
| because of possibility of __ __ __ swidden cultivation is considered both inefficient & destructive by governments | irreversible ecological deterioration |
| __ & giant __ mainly responsible for deterioration & disappearance of tropical forests, not swidden cultivation | logging; agribusiness |
| domestic pigs are important source of protein for these horticulturists to provide necessary proteins for human health | Papua New Guinea |
| keep goats, chickens, sheep & cows in this horticulturist society to provide necessary proteins for human health | Kofyar of Nigeria |
| this horticulturist society hunt monkeys & other rain forest animals to provide necessary proteins for human health | Yanomamo of Amazon |
| because of __ __ of swidden cultivation, horticulturists have diverse cultures | diverse environments |
| turning the soil w/use of plows, by agriculture, bring | nutrients to surface |
| agriculture requires some form of terracing in order to prevent crops & good soil from being washed away | hilly areas |
| uses techniques of natural fertilization, selective breeding of livestock & crops, & crop rotation, all of which increase productivity | preindustrial agriculture |
| agriculture can support populations increases by more __ __ of the same piece of land | intensive use |
| makes up only 9% of land area; supports 2/3+ of population through intensive wet rice cultivation using elaborate irrigation terraces | island of Java, Indonesia |
| __ population density is well over 200 people/sq mile | Javanese |
| maximum population density of __ __ in Indonesia, is about 145 persons/sq mile | swidden areas |
| growing rice in an __ __ requires about 233 person days of labor/year for each hectare | irrigated paddy |
| about 2.5 acres | hectare |
| agriculture requires more __ __ than horticulture | capital investment |
| agriculturalists are more __ to environment than horticulturists | vulnerable |
| for agriculturalists, who depend on 1-2 crops, one crop __ or __ that strikes draft animals may pose an economic disaster | failure; disease |
| agriculture is __ __ w/sedentary villages, rise of cities/state, occupational diversity, social stratification, & other complex forms of social organization | generally associated |
| some states in Africa were __ on horticulture | built |
| are enmeshed within larger complex societies, instead of those who only grow for subsistence of household | farmers (agriculturalists) |
| part of a farmers __ __ is used to support non-food-producing occupational specialists | food production |
| non-food-producing occupational specialists supported by agriculturalists | religious or ruling elites |
| Egyptian village exhibiting many of general characteristics of peasant villages | Musha |
| Musha characteristics include importance of household in __ | production |
| Musha characteristics include use of __ __ supply outside household | supplementary labor |
| Musha characteristics include need of many farmers depending on __ __ to supplement their income | part-time work |
| Musha characteristics include __ __ from cultivator by state in form of rent, taxes, & free labor | surplus extracted |
| Egypt has long & well-documented history of __ __ in agriculture | state intervention |
| intervention of the state in Musha is typical of __ __ in general | peasant societies |
| multiple strategies for making living in Musha highlight ways both physical & social environments provide __ but also constrain human __ & __ culture/society | opportunities; choices; shape |
| in industrialism focus of __ moves away from food to production of other goods & services | production |
| in industrialism __ in machinery & technologies of communication & info are increasingly important | investment |
| although food production is very large in __ __, only small % of population directly involved in food production | industrial society |
| 2005 US fewer than 1 million people, <0.5% of population, had farming as | primary occupation |
| industrialism has led to a shift from subsistence strategies to __ __ | wage labor |
| almost all transactions are mediated by money | industrial economies |
| industrial economies are based on principles that __ must constantly expand & __ standards of living must always rise | consumption; material |
| production systems that put limits on production & consumption, thus making lighter demands on environments | foraging, pastoralism, horticulture, & agriculture |
| contemporary __ & __ societies are characterized by well-coordinated specialized labor forces producing goods/services & smaller elite & managerial classes overseeing day-to-day operations & control of produced/distribution | industrial; postindustrial |
| important economic/social strata; increasing mobility, skill & education required for success | government bureaucracies |
| __ & __ are critical social issues in industrial societies because they require continued expansion generating higher levels of inequality | wealth; poverty |
| __ __ of opportunity, economic failure, illness & misfortune limit __ __ of vast numbers in industrialized societies | unequal distribution; life chances |
| characterize relations among as well as within nations | inequalities |
| creation of complex global systems of exchange between those who supply raw materials & those who use for manufacturing, as well as between __ & __, results in disparities of wealth within & among nations around world | manufactures; consumers |
| characterized by connectedness & change of a magnitude greater than anything seen before | contemporary world |
| particularly sensitive to complex linkages between local, regional, national & global contexts that structure modern world | anthropology |
| today can play important role in shaping government/global economic policies taking into account environmental implications of making a living on all who participate in global markets | anthropologists |
| all foragers exploit __ of their __ | diversity; environments |
| foragers whose traditional hunting strategy includes almost no collecting of plant food; 6000 yrs have hunted bow-head whales, walrus, caribou, & seal | Inuit of Arctic Circle |
| Inuit food quest does follow __ __ of their climate | seasonal variation |
| Inuit __ __ emphasize cooperation & mutual aid | cultural values |
| Inuit __ __ provide effective outlets for isolation & tension of long dark winters | religious rituals |
| Inuit __ __ organization allows local populations to expand/contract in response to seasonal variation in resources | flexible kinship |
| 20th-21st centuries has changed Inuit subsistence strategies, they now base livelihoods on combination of __ __ from variety of sources while maintaining traditional foraging | cash income |
| 20th century Western demand for furs replaced Inuit subsistence __ with commercial __ | hunting; trapping |
| subsistence hunting & commercial trapping provided Inuit with __ & __ | guns; cash |
| handicrafts, tourism, various government subsidies, & for Alaska Inuit payment from Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act | nontraditional sources of Inuit income today |
| subsistence hunting & __ __ of wildfoods, such as moose, caribou, whales, ducks, fish etc. continue to provide __ or more of Inuit diet | traditional uses; half |
| traditional foraging of Inuit, makes use of __ __ such as snowmobiles, gasoline, fishing nets & sleeping bags | modern technologies |
| many Inuit households have modern conveniences, requiring household members to work __ or __ in cash economy | full-time; seasonally |
| 70-yr-old Inuit from Yukon, Canada; 40 yrs ago in summer enough icebergs to land your boat & climb on them, now they are tiny | Danny Gordon |
| Inuit must __ to change of global warming | adapt |
| icebergs/permafrost melting at accelerated rate, due to global warming; difficult for __ __ hunters to maintain cultures & traditional ways of making living | Inuit marine |
| shrinking ice make harder for __ __ to fatten up on seals & becoming __ | polar bears; emaciated |
| in open seas have seen walruses try to climb on their white boats mistaking them from ice floes | Alaskan whale hunters |
| one of many foraging groups in NE Alaska & NW Canada affected by global warming; 8,000 live in small villages spread across sub-Arctic tundra; Mathew Gilbert | Gwich'in |
| main source of Gwich'in subsistence are __ __, which sizes decreased & less healthy due to global warming | caribou herds |
| __ __ is another threat facing Gwich'in of Arctic | oil exploration |
| one of many "cattle cultures" of E Africa; live in semiarid grasslands of Southern Kenya & NE Tanzania | Maasai |
| semiarid grasslands of Southern Kenya & NE Tanzania are characterized by many different __ | microenvironments |
| archaeological anthropologist reviving ancient system of agriculture w/potatoes as central crop, in high plateau region of Andes Mt. Bolivia | Alan Kolata |
| Alan Kolata is working with __ & local farmers | agronomists |
| Alan Kolata's site is located on shore of Lk Titicaca, site of ancient city from 1500 BCE called | Tiwanaku |
| has highest elevation of any commercially navigable lake in the world, & is slightly salty | Lk Titicaca |
| in order to adapt to opportunities & drawback of region, Tiwanaku farmers constructed system of __ agriculture | raised-bed |
| series of platforms; beginning layer of cobblestone; layer of clay; layer of sand/gravel; layer of fertile soil | raised-bed agriculture system |
| the layer of clay in raised-bed agriculture system prevented __ __ from lake from seeping into topsoil | salty water |
| the layer of sand/gravel, raised-bed agriculture system, promoted | drainage |
| the canals surrounding platforms of raised-bed agriculture system, trapped __ __ from intense Andean sunlight | radiant energy |
| the canals surrounding platforms of raised-bed agriculture system provided __ blanket of warm water to protect from evening frosts | insulating |
| the canals surrounding platforms of raised-bed agriculture system also became environment for plants, insects, & other organisms that | enriched the soil |
| after __ __ in 16th century the raised-bed agriculture system fell into disuse with farmers adopting colonizing methods | Spanish conquest |
| good but disturbing example of industrialism | American beef industry |
| for Americans meat is symbolic of | manliness |
| considered iconic American meal | meat & potatoes |
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lfrancois
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