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Unit 1 - Bio Basis
Biological Basis of Behavior
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolute threshold | the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. |
| accommodation | in vision, the process by which the lens of the eye shifts to focus on a particular object. |
| acetylcholine | A neurotransmitter involved in muscle activation, memory, and learning. |
| action potential | a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron, generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the neuron's membrane. |
| activation-synthesis theory | A theory of dreaming that suggests dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity. |
| adaptation | the process by which a species becomes fitted to its environment through natural selection |
| addiction | a complex condition characterized by compulsive drug use or behaviors despite harmful consequences. |
| agonist | a drug or chemical that enhances the activity of neurotransmitters. |
| alcohol | A depressant that slows down the central nervous system, impairing cognitive and motor functions. |
| all-or-none response | the principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all. |
| alpha waves | the relatively slow brain waves associated with relaxation and wakefulness. |
| amplitude | The height of a wave, which determines the loudness of a sound. |
| amygdala | the limbic system structure involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression. |
| antagonist | a drug or chemical that inhibits or blocks the action of neurotransmitters. |
| aphasia | A condition characterized by the loss of ability to understand or express speech. |
| association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions but are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking |
| audition | the sense of hearing |
| auditory Cortex | The part of the brain that processes auditory information. |
| autonomic nervous system | the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and glandular secretions |
| axon | the extension of a neuron through which neural impulses are sent. |
| barbiturates | a class of drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. |
| behavior genetics | the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. |
| biological psychology | a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. |
| biopsychosocial approach | an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. |
| blind spot | the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a small gap in the field of vision. |
| blindsight | condition in which a person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously experiencing them. |
| bottom-up processing | analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. |
| brainstem | the oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions. |
| Broca's Area | A region in the frontal lobe of the brain associated with speech production. |
| caffeine | A stimulant found in coffee, tea, and many soft drinks that increases alertness and reduces fatigue central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and coordinating information. |
| cerebellum | structure in the hindbrain that helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance. |
| cerebral cortex | the outer layer of the brain responsible for complex cognitive processes such as thinking, planning, and language. |
| Charles Darwin | English naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection. |
| circadian rhythm | the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle. |
| cocaine | A powerful stimulant drug that increases levels of dopamine in the brain, leading to intense euphoria and increased energy. |
| cochlea | coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. |
| cochlear implant | device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea. |
| cognitive neuroscience | the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). |
| computed tomography (CT) | scanning technique using multiple X-rays to construct a 3D image of the brain's structure. |
| conduction hearing loss | hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. |
| cones | photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision and fine detail. |
| consciousness | our awareness of ourselves and our environment. |
| consolidation theory | The theory that sleep helps strengthen the neural connections that form our memories. |
| contralateral control | The principle that each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body. |
| cornea | the transparent outer layer of the eye that covers the pupil and iris and helps focus incoming light. |
| corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. |
| David Hubel | Canadian neurophysiologist known for his work with Torsten Wiesel on the processing of visual information in the brain. |
| delta waves | the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. |
| dendrites | branchlike extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. |
| depolarization | The process by which a neuron's membrane potential becomes less negative, leading to the firing of an action potential. |
| depressants | drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. |
| dichromatism | A type of color blindness where one of the three basic color mechanisms is absent or not functioning. |
| difference threshold | the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; also known as just noticeable difference (JND). |
| dopamine | A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control. |
| dream | sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. |
| dual processing | the idea that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. |
| electroencephalogram (EEG) | recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain's surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. |
| embodied cognition | the theory that cognition is influenced by the body's interactions with the environment. |
| endocrine system | the body's slow chemical communication system, consisting of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. |
| endorphins | neurotransmitters that are natural painkillers produced by the brain. |
| environment | every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. |
| epigenetics | the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. |
| Ernst Weber | German physician credited with the formulation of Weber's law, which describes the relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the intensity of its perceived sensation. |
| eugenics | A controversial and unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population. |
| evolutionary psychology | the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. |
| excitatory Neurotransmitter | A neurotransmitter that promotes the firing of neurons. |
| farsightedness (Hyperopia) | A condition where distant objects can be seen clearly, but close objects appear blurry. |
| feature detectors | nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. |
| fMRI | technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. |
| forebrain | the largest and most prominent part of the brain, including the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures. |
| fovea | the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. |
| fraternal (dizygotic) twins | twins who develop from separate eggs and are no more similar genetically than non-twin siblings. |
| frequency | the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time. |
| frequency theory | the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. |
| frontal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead, involved in planning and judgment. |
| GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) | The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. |
| ganglion cells | Neurons in the retina that relay information from the photoreceptors to the brain. |
| gate-control theory | the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. |
| genes | the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein. |
| genome | the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes. |
| glial cells | cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons, and play a role in learning and thinking. |
| glutamate | The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. |
| gustation | the sense of taste |
| Gustav Fechner | German psychologist known for his work in psychophysics, particularly his development of Weber's law and the concept of the just noticeable difference. |
| hallucinations | perceptions that have no direct external cause, arising from disorders such as schizophrenia, sensory deprivation, or drug-induced states. |
| hallucinogens | drugs that alter perception and cause hallucinations or profound distortions in a person's perceptions of reality. |
| heredity | the genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring. |
| heroin | An opioid drug that produces intense euphoria and pain relief, highly addictive. |
| hindbrain | the lower part of the brainstem, comprising the medulla, pons, and cerebellum, responsible for basic life functions. |
| hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. |
| hormones | chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands and circulated in the bloodstream, regulating the activity of target cells or organs. |
| hue | the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, etc. |
| hypnagogic sensations | experiences during the transition from wakefulness to sleep, including hallucinations, muscle jerks, and sensations of falling. |
| hypothalamus | a neural structure lying below the thalamus, regulating bodily functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior, and controlling the pituitary gland. |
| identical (monozygotic) twins | twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. |
| inhibitory neurotransmitter | A neurotransmitter that inhibits the firing of neurons. |
| inner ear | the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs, involved in balance and hearing. |
| insomnia | persistent problems falling asleep and/or staying asleep. |
| intensity | the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness. |
| interneurons | neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. |
| iris | the colored ring of muscle that regulates the size of the pupil by controlling the amount of light entering the eye. |
| jet lag | A temporary sleep disorder that occurs when a person's internal body clock is out of sync with the time zone they are in. |
| just noticeable difference (JND) | The minimum difference in stimulation that a person can detect 50% of the time. |
| kinesthesis | the sense of the body's position and movement of body parts relative to each other. |
| lens | the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. |
| lesion | damage to body tissue, often caused by disease or injury, but can be used to modify behavior by destroying targeted areas of brain tissue |
| limbic system | set of structures in the brain, including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus, involved in emotion, motivation, and memory. |
| magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain's soft tissue. |
| magnetoencephalography (MEG) | brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields generated by neuronal activity in the brain. |
| marijuana | A drug containing THC that alters mood, perception, and cognitive function. |
| medulla | the base of the brainstem, controlling heartbeat and breathing. |
| Michael Gazzaniga | pioneering neuroscientist known for his split-brain research, which revealed insights into the functional differences between the brain's hemispheres. |
| midbrain | small region of the brainstem involved in auditory and visual processing and regulation of motor movements. |
| middle ear | the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window. |
| monochromatism | Complete color blindness where only shades of grey are perceived, with no ability to distinguish colors. |
| motor (efferent) neurons | neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. |
| motor cortex | an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. |
| multiple sclerosis | A disease in which the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerves, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body. |
| mutation | a random error in gene replication that leads to a change. |
| myasthenia gravis | An autoimmune disorder that affects communication between nerves and muscles, leading to muscle weakness. |
| myelin | the fatty tissue layer that encases the axons of some neurons, speeding up the neural impulses. |
| narcolepsy | a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks, often triggered by strong emotions. |
| natural selection | the principle that heritable traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. |
| nature-nurture issue | the debate over the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development. |
| near-death experience | an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death, often including out-of-body experiences and feelings of peace. |
| nearsightedness (Myopia) | A condition where close objects are seen clearly, but distant objects are blurry. |
| nervous system | the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. |
| neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons. |
| neuron | nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. |
| neuroplasticity | the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life, particularly in response to learning, experience, or injury. |
| neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synaptic gap between neurons. |
| NREM sleep (Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep) | the sleep stages characterized by slow brain waves, relaxed muscles, and decreased heart rate and breathing. |
| norepinephrine | A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in arousal and alertness. |
| occipital lobes | regions of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain, responsible for processing visual information. |
| oleogustus | A proposed sixth taste sensation for the taste of fat. |
| olfaction | the sense of smell. |
| opioids | a class of drugs that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects, including pain relief and feelings of euphoria. |
| opponent-process theory | theory of color vision proposing that the brain processes color information in pairs of complementary colors (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow). |
| optic nerve | the bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina to the brain. |
| parallel processing | the brain's ability to process multiple aspects of a problem or stimulus simultaneously. |
| parasympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy and promoting rest and digestion. |
| parietal lobes | regions of the cerebral cortex located at the top of the brain, responsible for processing sensory information such as touch and spatial awareness. |
| perception | the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. |
| peripheral nervous system | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body, transmitting information to and from the brain and spinal cord. |
| pheromones | Chemicals secreted by animals that influence the behavior or physiology of others of the same species. |
| pitch | a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. |
| pituitary gland | The "master gland" of the endocrine system that regulates other glands and controls various bodily functions. |
| place theory | the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated. |
| plasticity | The brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experience. |
| positron resonance tomography (PET) | a brain imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting radioactive glucose uptake in active brain areas. |
| priming | the activation of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. |
| prosopagnosia | A neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize faces, also known as face blindness. |
| psychoactive drug | a chemical substance that alters perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior. |
| psychophysics | the study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them. |
| pupil | the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. |
| reflex | a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex. |
| reflex arc | The neural pathway that controls a reflex action. |
| refractory period | a brief period after a neuron has fired during which it cannot generate another action potential. |
| REM rebound | the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. |
| REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement sleep) | a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis. |
| REM sleep behavior disorder | sleep disorder characterized by the acting out of violent or dramatic dreams during REM sleep. |
| resting potential | The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active. |
| reticular activating system | A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in arousal and attention. |
| reticular formation | a network of neurons running through the core of the brainstem, involved in controlling arousal and attention. |
| retina | the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor cells (rods and cones) and layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. |
| reuptake | the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron after they have been released into the synaptic gap. |
| reuptake inhibitors | Medications that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters into neurons, increasing their levels in the brain. |
| rods | retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. |
| Roger Sperry | A neuropsychologist who won the Nobel Prize for his split-brain research, showing functional differences between the brain's hemispheres. |
| semicircular canals | Structures in the inner ear involved in maintaining balance and detecting head movements. |
| sensation | the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. |
| sensorineural hearing loss | hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells or the auditory nerve. |
| sensory (afferent) neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. |
| sensory adaptation | diminished sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus over time. |
| sensory interaction | the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. |
| sensory receptors | specialized cells that detect sensory stimuli and convert them into neural impulses to be sent to the brain. |
| sequential processing | the processing of one aspect of a stimulus at a time, used when we focus attention on new or complex tasks. |
| serotonin | A neurotransmitter that affects mood, appetite, and sleep. |
| signal detection theory | a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise. |
| Sigmund Freud | Austrian neurologist known as the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. |
| sleep | a natural state of rest for the body and mind, characterized by altered consciousness, reduced sensory activity, and inactivity of nearly all voluntary muscles. |
| sleep apnea | a sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breaths during sleep, leading to disrupted sleep and daytime fatigue. |
| somatic nervous system | the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information to the central nervous system. |
| somatosensory cortex | a brain region located in the parietal lobe that processes sensory information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position. |
| somnambulism | A disorder in which a person walks or performs other complex behaviors while asleep. |
| sound localization | The process by which the position of a sound source is determined. |
| spinal Cord | The part of the central nervous system that transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body. |
| split brain procedure | a surgical procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's hemispheres, typically done to treat severe epilepsy. |
| stimulants | drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions, such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine. |
| subliminal | below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness. |
| substance P | A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals. |
| substance use disorder | a condition characterized by continued use of a substance despite significant substance-related problems. |
| supertasters | Individuals with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations. |
| suprachiasmatic nucleus | a tiny region of the hypothalamus that acts as the body's internal clock, regulating circadian rhythms such as the sleep-wake cycle. |
| sympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources during stress and emergencies, preparing the body for "fight or flight" responses. |
| synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron, where neurotransmitters are released. |
| synesthesia | A condition in which one sense is simultaneously perceived as if by one or more additional senses. |
| temporal lobes | the regions of the cerebral cortex located above the ears, responsible for processing auditory information and containing areas involved in memory, language comprehension, and emotion. |
| thalamus | the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem, relaying sensory information (except for smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. |
| threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. |
| tolerance | the diminishing effect of a drug with regular use, requiring larger doses to achieve the same effect. |
| top-down processing | information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. |
| Torsten Wiesel | Swedish neurophysiologist known for his collaborative work with David Hubel, elucidating the visual processing system and its role in perception. |
| transduction | the process of converting one form of energy into another, such as sensory stimuli into neural impulses. |
| umami | One of the five basic tastes, often described as savory or meaty. |
| vestibular sense | the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. |
| visual accommodation | The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances. |
| visual cortex | The part of the brain that processes visual information. |
| volley principle | A theory of hearing which states that groups of neurons respond to sound by firing action potentials slightly out of phase with one another. |
| wavelength | the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next wave, determining the wave's color (in vision) or pitch (in audition). |
| Weber's Law | the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount. |
| Wernicke's Area | A region in the temporal lobe of the brain associated with language comprehension. |
| withdrawal | the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug or behavior. |
| Young-Helmholtz (Trichromatic) Theory | the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors (cones)—red, green, and blue—that can produce any color by combining the three. |
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