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AP Psychology Unit 3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Bottom-Up processing | relies on sensation over perception unfamiliarity |
| Top-down processing | relies on perception over sensation bring our expectations and prior knowledge |
| Sensation | process when sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment |
| Sensory receptors | sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli |
| Perception | process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events |
| Cocktail party effect | your ability to attend to one voice among a sea of other voices |
| Inattentional blindness | focusing attention on some part of our environment |
| Selective attention | focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus |
| Inattention blindness | failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere |
| Change blindness | failing to notice changes in the environment; form of inattentional blindness |
| Transduction | conversion of one form of energy into another in sensation, the transferring of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret |
| Psychophysics | study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them |
| Signal Detection Theory Responses | - Hit- stimulus present, identified - Miss- stimulus present, not identified - False alarm- no stimulus, identified - Correct rejection- no stimulus, not identified |
| Absolute threshold | minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time |
| Signal detection theory | theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise) |
| Subliminal | below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness |
| Difference threshold | minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time |
| Weber’s law | principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) |
| Sensory adaptation | diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation |
| Perceptual set | mental predisposition through which we perceive the world (think of lens) involves top-down processing |
| Extrasensory perception (ESP) | controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes - telepathy- mind-to-mind communication - clairvoyance- perceiving remote events - precognition - perceiving future events |
| Parapsychology | study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis |
| Wavelength | distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next |
| Hue | color which is determined by the wavelength of light (green, blue, ect.) |
| Intensity | amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave that influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness determined by the wave’s amplitude (height) |
| Cornea | eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris moves |
| Pupil | adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters does not move |
| Iris | ring of muscle tissue (dilates and constricts) that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening |
| Lens | transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina |
| Retina | light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information |
| Accommodation | in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina |
| Rods | receptor cells located on periphery side, outer side of retina detect black, white, and gray; deals with peripheral and night vision |
| Cones | receptor cells located in the fovea- focal point of retina detect color and fine detail - C for color |
| Optic nerve | nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain |
| Blind spot | point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there |
| Fovea | central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster |
| Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory | theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors (one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue) which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color |
| Opponent-process theory | theory by Hering that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision - Red-green - Blue-yellow - White-black |
| Feature detectors | nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement |
| Parallel processing | processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions |
| Gestalt | an organized whole gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes |
| Figure-ground | organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground) - Ex. Words that you read are the figure, the white space is the ground. |
| Grouping | the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups - proximity, continuity, and closure |
| Proximity | group nearby figures together |
| Continuity | perceive continuous shapes/lines |
| Closure | see figures where there are only gaps in shapes |
| Depth perception | ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance |
| Visual cliff | lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals |
| Binocular cues | a depth cue that depends on the use of two eyes |
| Retinal disparity | binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the close the object |
| Monocular cues | depth cues available to either eye alone |
| Relative height (monocular cue) | we perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away |
| Relative motion (monocular cue) | as we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move |
| Relative size (monocular cue) | if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away |
| Interposition (monocular cue) | if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer |
| Linear perspective (monocular cue) | parallel lines appear to meet in the distance |
| Light and shadow (monocular cue) | shading produces a sense of depth consistent with our assumption that light comes from above |
| Phi phenomenon | illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession Ex. Lighted arrow sign |
| Stroboscopic movement | phenomenon where brain perceives a rapid series of slightly varying images as continuous movement |
| Perceptual constancy | top-down process that recognizes objects without being deceived by changes in their color, brightness, shape, and size |
| Perceptual adaptation | ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field |
| Audition | sense or act of hearing |
| Wavelength determines _________. | pitch |
| Amplitude determines _________. | loudness |
| Frequency | number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second) |
| Pitch | a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency |
| Middle ear | chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window 1. Hammer 2. Anvil 3. Stirrup |
| Cochlea | coiled, bony, snail-shaped fluid-filled tube in the inner ear sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulse |
| Inner ear | innermost part of the ear, containing: 1. Cochlea 2. Semicircular canals 3. Vestibular sacs |
| Sensorineural hearing loss | more common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves |
| Conduction hearing loss | less common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system: eardrums and middle ear bones |
| Cochlear implant | device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea |
| Place theory | different pitches activate different places on the cochlea’s basilar membrane - explains how we hear high-pitched sounds |
| Frequency theory | whole basilar membrane vibrates at the frequency of the sound - explains how we hear low-pitched sounds |
| Gate control theory (of pain) | theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain - sensations on larger fibers can override the pain signals on the small fibers |
| Nociceptors | nerve endings that detect pain located in your skin, but also muscles and organs |
| Gustation | sense of taste |
| Olfaction | sense of smell |
| Kinesthesia | our movement sense- our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts |
| Vestibular sense | our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance - sense located in inner ear (semicircular canals and vestibular sacs) |
| Sensory interaction | principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste |
| McGurk effect | our brain blends two inputs to perceive a third sound - we see a speaker mouth “ga” while hearing “ba”, we may perceive “da” |
| Embodied cognition | the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgement |
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Rach3
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