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ap psych unit2 vocab
ap psychology myers' unit two vocabulary
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| hindsight bias | the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (also known as the i-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) hypothesis |
| hypothesis | a testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
| operational definition | a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. |
| case study | an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
| naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
| illusory correlation | the perception of a relationship where none exists |
| placebo | any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent |
| range | the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution |
| culture | behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
| action potential | a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon |
| adrenal glands | a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress |
| amygdala | two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion |
| association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking |
| alpha waves | the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state |
| autonomic nervous system | the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms |
| axon | the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fivers through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands |
| barbiturates | drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement |
| brainstem | the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; is responsible for automatic survival functions |
| central nervous system (CNS) | the brain and spinal cord. |
| cerebellum | the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance |
| cerebral cortex | the intricate fabic of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center |
| chromosomes | threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes |
| circadian rhythm | the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle |
| consciousness | our awareness of ourselves and our environment |
| dream | a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. |
| dual processing | the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks |
| ecstacy (MDMA) | a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition |
| endocrine system | the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream |
| endorphins | “morphine within” natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure |
| environment | every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us |
| evolutionary psychology | the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection |
| corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them |
| ct (computed tomography) scan | a series of x-rays photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. also called cat scan |
| delta waves | the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep |
| dendrite | the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body |
| depressants | drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions |
| dissociation | a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others |
| dna (deoxyribonucleic acid) | a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes |
| fMRI (functional MRI) | a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. shows brain function |
| fraternal twins | twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment |
| frontal lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements |
| genes | the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein |
| genome | the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosome |
| glial cell | cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons |
| hallucinations | false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus |
| hallucinogens | psychedelic (”mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input |
| heritability | the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. this may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied |
| hippocampus | a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage |
| hormones | chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel though the bloodstream, and affect other tissues |
| hypnosis | a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) the certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur |
| hypothalamus | a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward |
| identical twins | twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two, creating two genetically identical twins |
| insomnia | recurring problems in falling or staying asleep |
| interneurons | neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor inputs |
| latent content | according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content |
| lesion | tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally cause destruction of brain tissue |
| limbic system | doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and ****hypothalamus) locate below the cerebral hemispheres; associate with emotions and drives |
| LSD | a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide) |
| manifest content | according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content) |
| medulla | the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing |
| methamphetamine | a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels |
| mode | the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution |
| molecular genetics | the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and functions of genes |
| motor cortex | an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements |
| motor neurons | neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands |
| MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue, shows brain anatomy |
| mutation | a random error in gene replication that leads to a change |
| myelin sheath | a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fivers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the pulse hops from one node to the next |
| narcolepsy | a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times |
| natural selection | the principle that, among the range of inherited variation, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations |
| near-death experience | an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as though cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations |
| nervous system | the body’s speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems |
| neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons |
| neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system |
| neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. |
| night terrors | a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered |
| NREM sleep | non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep |
| occipital lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields |
| opiates | opium and its derivatives, such as morphines and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety |
| parallel processing | the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving |
| parasympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy |
| parietal lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position |
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body |
| pituitary gland | the endocrine system’s most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands |
| plasticity | the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience |
| posthypnotic suggestion | a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors |
| psychoactive drug | a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods |
| reflex | a simple automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response |
| refractory period | a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm |
| REM sleep | rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active |
| reticular formation | a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal |
| reuptake | a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron |
| sensory neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord |
| sleep | periodic, natural loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation |
| sleep apnea | a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings |
| somatic nervous system | the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. also called the skeletal nervous system |
| split brain | a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum connecting them) |
| stimulants | drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstacy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions |
| sympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations |
| synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. the tiny gap at the junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft |
| temporal lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear |
| threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse |
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