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Exam 2: Compartive
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What were the two divisions of Darwin's theory of sexual selection? | intrasexual and intersexual |
| Define intrasexual selection | Members of one sex compete with each other for access to the other sex |
| Define intersexual selection | Individuals of one sex choose which individuals of the other sex to take as mates |
| Define sexual selection | production of offspring by the combination of gametes from two parents |
| Define anisogamy | a form of sexual reproduction that involves the union or fusion of two gametes that differ in size and/or form |
| What are two examples of reproductive asymmetry? | anisogamy and gestation |
| Why is it that males are almost always competing for females? | due to the different type and number of gametes produced by males (sperm, little energy required to produce in large quanitity) and females (eggs, large but few) |
| What is an example of a simultaneous hermaphrodite? | slugs |
| What is an example of a sequential hermaphrodite? | clownfish (start as male, become female) |
| Define hermaphrodite | an organism that has both male and female reproductive organs |
| Describe Bateman's principle | Female's choose mates due to costs of egg production and limited reproductive success Female choosiness translates into greater variance in reproductive success of males |
| What is sexual imprinting? | Young individuals learning mating preferences from their interactions with adults |
| What is female reproductive potential limited by? | energy to produce eggs/offspring (access to food) |
| What is male reproductive potential limited by? | fertilizations (access to mates) |
| Intrasexual selection is USUALLY... | males competing for females |
| What is an indirect benefit of intrasexual selection? | Social status, like red-winged blackbirds attacking everything during breeding season |
| What is a direct benefit of intrasexual selection? | Fights for females, like elephant seals on the beach Sperm competition |
| What are the alternative breeding strategies that intrasexual selection can lead to? | Condition dependent and evolutionary equilibrium |
| Describe a condition dependent breeding strategy | VERY loud calls Females choose loudest Larger males call Smaller males are satellites |
| Describe an evolutionary equilibrium breeding strategy | Male ruff mating strategies Independent: males guard small mating territories Satellite: temporary allies with independent males Faeder: sneaker males |
| Sexual dimorphism is often a result of... | intrasexual selection in males |
| What does sexual dimorphism mean? | Males and females differ phenotypically in many species |
| Who is intersexual selection between? | Males and females |
| Intersexual selection is based on... | attractiveness to opposite sex |
| in intersexual selection, the sex that invests more in offspring production has... | fewer reproductive opportunities |
| Describe the predicted behavior for the sex that invests more in offspring production in intersexual selection | They are a limiting resource for the opposite sex Should be choosier |
| Are elaborate displays associated with inter- or intra- sexual selection? | Intersexual selection |
| The handicap principle states that: | Traits are expected to be honest signals in that there is a true cost to the elaborated trait that prevents cheaters |
| Define monogamy | One male and one female paired for at least a breeding season |
| What is an example of a polyandry mating system? | Grey Foam Nest Treefrog |
| Define parental investment | Any form of parental behavior that is likely to increase the survival and fitness of young AND decrease the parent's ability to invest in future reproduction |
| What does parental investment include? | •Guarding of eggs (pre-hatch/birth) • Guarding of offspring • Provisioning • Nursing • Carrying |
| The two main takeaways from Trivers' paper: | Females increasing quality of offspring Males increasing quantity of offspring (whereas quality = likelihood of survival shown by weight, health) |
| What is inclusive fitness? | direct + indirect fitness = total genetic contribution to next generation |
| Why don't all species have kin recognition? | It can be costly to develop and maintain sensory systems and there is potential for incorrect rejection |
| When should kin recognition evolve? | Group living Mammals that lactate/species where a lot of care is given Generally : when benefits are high enough to offset the cost of the sensory systems necessary for it |
| What does foraging behavior include? | Searching for and consuming food |
| What questions does optimal foraging theory pose? | What to eat Where to eat Nutrient constraints Effects of food supply variance |
| What does marginal value theory predict? | where to eat/how long to eat in a place |
| Marginal value theory assumes: | We know the rate of food intake It costs to switch patches |
| What is optimal foraging theory? | a class of models that predicts what and where animals should eat, as well as nutrient constraints and the effects of hunger state on risk-sensitive foraging |
| What do producers do? | find and procure food |
| What do scroungers do? | Eat the food that producers have uncovered |
| Are satiated foragers more or less risky? | less |
| Are starving foragers more or less risky? | more |
| Describe parent-offspring conflict theory | Rooted in genetic differences between parents and offspring |
| What is an alliance? | a long-term coalition |
| What is an example of an alliance? | Male bottlenose dolphins form alliances to keep a female with them until she mates with them Will compete for female by growing alliance size |
| Define coalition | a cooperative action taken by at least two individuals/groups against another individual/group |
| What is an example of a coalition? | Two chimps teaming up to beat a third chimp |
| What is a benefit of being part of coalitions? | Males that are part of coalitions are more successful in paternity |
| Another name for network reciprocity is: | spatial selection |
| When does cooperation via byproduct mutualism occur? | When selfish behavior by one individual has an incidental, but beneficial spin-off effect for another individual performing the same act |
| Why is cooperation difficult to explain? | The existence of cooperation is questionable if individuals get better benefits from defecting than they do cooperating. In other words, what would drive a population to cooperate if cheaters can gain more? |
| What is risk sensitivity based on? | Energy budget Variability in food amount vs. handling time Number of food choices |
| What does optimal foraging theory assume? | natural selection favors behaviors that maximize fitness |
| What is the decision to aid family members a function of? | how related individuals are and how high or low the costs and benefits associated with the trait turn out to be |
| Does natural selection more strongly favor kin helping one another when r is high or low? | high |
| Explain haplodiploidy | males are haploid and females are diploid |
| What are the types of polygamy? | Polygyny Polyandry Polygynandry |
| What are the types of sperm competition? | 1st male precedence Last male precedence Mate guarding Physical changes |
| What does 1st male precedence sperm competition do? | Prevents subsequent copulation changes |
| What does last male precedence sperm competition involve? | Sperm displacement Sperm removal |
| What is an example of a physical change related to sperm competition? | Testes size |
| Why have sexual reproduction? | Genetic recombination and diversity |
| What is mate-choice copying? | When a female's mate-choice preference is affected by the preference of other females in her population When a male's probability of being preferred as a mate increases as a result of having been preferred by a female in the past |
| What does the kamikaze sperm hypothesis suggest? | Natural selection might favor the production of some sperm types that are designed to kill other males' sperm rather than fertilize |
| What is sperm competition? | the direct competition between the sperm of different males to fertilize a female's eggs |
| A female controlling the amount of sperm a copulating male inseminates her with is an example of? | Cryptic mate choice |
| What are other primate mating systems to compare for the question "Are humans monogamous?" | Gorillas = polygynous Gibbons = monogamous |
| The type of polygyny depends on what? | The Environmental Potential for Polygyny (EPP)/ spatial & temporal distribution of females or resources |
| What is a lek? | males gathering and displaying, but not guarding, a small area in an environment of random abundant resources (ex. sage grouse) |
| Sexual selection favors females that have what? | a genetic predisposition to choose mates that provide them with tangible resources that increase their fecundity |
| What are nuptial gifts? | Prey presented by members of one sex to members of the other sex during courtship |
| What does dyadic mean? | Two |
| What does polyadic mean? | More than two |
| What is Simpson's paradox? | a trend that goes away when you put different groups together |
| What does selection between groups favor? | cooperators |
| What did Wynne-Edwards propose? | natural selection acts on groups, individuals can restrain consumption and reproduction for the good of the community |
| What does selection within groups favor? | defectors |
| What does network reciprocity propose? | Population structure is not random Cooperators can form clusters where they can earn higher payouts than defectors |
| "A good reputation is more valuable than money" is associated with? | Indirect reciprocity |
| What is an animal example of indirect reciprocity? | Cleaner fish allow little fish to clean them Small fish trust that the big fish won't eat them Big fish trusts that the little fish won't bite off flesh |
| What is a human example of indirect reciprocity? | Eyes on a tip jar |
| Explain indirect reciprocity | Cooperative behavior between two individuals that does not depend upon their direct interaction Information is gathered from third parties or indirect observation Helps explain the evolution of cooperation in individuals with one-shot encounters |
| How do primates keep track of who grooms them? | Oxytocin/emotional bookkeeping |
| Explain emotional bookkeeping in primates | Levels were higher after grooming with social bond partner compared to another partner Levels were higher after grooming with social bond partner compared to no social interaction ^both are true regardless of kinship |
| Explain reciprocity in vampire bats | Eat blood exclusively Will die if they don't eat for two nights in a row Can roost in groups of 1000s If failure to feed, bat will beg from another bat, who regurgitates blood to it Will help non-kin even if kin are present |
| According to game theory, what is the best strategy for cooperation? | tit for tat |
| What are four strategies for cooperation? | Tit for tat Nice Forgiving Non-envious |
| What does game theory state? | Benefit from mutual cooperation but gain more by exploiting cooperation of others |
| ESS | evolutionarily stable strategy |
| Explain nice strategy in cooperation | Do not defect before opponent does Can never score more than opponent |
| Explain forgiving strategy in cooperation | After retaliation, need to forgive so that cooperation can begin again. Otherwise, long runs of revenge and counter-revenge, losing points |
| Explain non-envious strategy in cooperation | Don't strive to score more than the opponent |
| What are the conditions for behavior to be categorized as altruistic? | The behavior reduces a donor's fitness relative to a selfish alternative. The recipient must be elevated relative to non-recipients. Do not perform the behavior without expecting an immediate benefit. |
| "I would lay down my life for two brothers or eight cousins" is associated with? | Kin selection |
| mechanism of detection for altruistism | A mechanism for detecting cheaters must exist. An indefinite number of opportunities to exchange aid must exist |
| What are the six evolutionary explanations for cooperation? | Kin selection • Direct reciprocity (AKA Reciprocal Altruism) • Indirect reciprocity • Byproduct mutualism • Network reciprocity • Group selection (BIG KND) |
| What is the coefficient of relatedness? | Probability that a gene shared among the two individuals is identical by descent |
| Explain kin selection | Evolutionary theory that individuals bias positive behavior towards relatives to enhance their own fitness Direct fitness= own reproductive success Indirect fitness= relatives' reproductive success |
| Why are belding ground squirrel alarm calls an example of kin selection? | Females stay in groups with family members, males leave to other groups so they're not as likely to call because they're not as likely to be protecting blood relatives |
| What is an example of sex role reversal? | Jacana birds Females aggressively defend territories and accumulate harems of males Females weigh 60% more than males Males incubate clutches because of high egg predation so energy is expended on egg production |
| What are indirect benefits of intersexual selection? | Good genes and sexy sons |
| What are indirect benefits of intersexual selection? | Territory Food Parental care Protection |
| What is the idea behind the good genes hypothesis? | Elaborated male traits may be indicators of heritable genetic quality |
| In good genes hypothesis, females select for? | increased offspring survival or reproductive success |
| What is an animal example of the good genes hypothesis? | Peacocks: Mating success positively correlated with number of eyespots on the train Offspring of males with more elaborate tails weighed more and survived longer |
| What is the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis? | Expression of particular male traits is associated with resistance to parasites or other pathogens |
| Good genes vs right genes | Good genes doesn't refer to universal high quality, can vary based on individuals involved Can be based on: Compatibility Complementary |
| MHC | major histocompatibility complex |
| MHC is an example of what? | Good genes vs. right genes |
| What is fisherian runaway selection? | Correlation between a trait and female preference |
| What is the sexy sons hypothesis? | At some point the ONLY benefit to female choice is that her sons inherit the most attractive trait and her daughters inherit the preference |
| What is sensory exploitation? | Female bias for some stimuli evolutionarily predates the male mating trait |
| According to ethology, monogamy should occur when? | in ecological situations that create significant benefits to males that opt to remain with a single female (when resources are scarce) |
| Why are jacanas an example of polyandry? | predation of eggs is a big threat |
| What is an animal example of polygyny? | Male Epsilon wasps waits (and guards) for emerging virgin female |
| T or F: within-group conflict is higher in polyandrous nests | True, because of the numerous patrilines (offspring descended from a common mother but different fathers) |
| What are extra pair copulations? | When males and females leave their territories during the mating season to mate with other individuals usually in nearby territories |
| What are female benefits from EPCs? | Increased probability of fertilized eggs Maximized genetic diversity in offspring Selection of mates with good genes Increased direct benefits from males (protection, food) |
| Female benefits of polyandry | Good genes; fertility insurance • Material benefits • Extra help • Paternity confusion |
| What is polygynandry? | Multiple male, multiple female bonds |
| What is polyandry? | one female, many males |
| What is polygyny? | one male, multiple females (common among vertebrates) |
| Male benefits of promiscuity | Get to father lots of offspring Teste size is bigger |
| Female benefits of promiscuity | If the males aren't sure if the baby is theirs or not, they're not going to risk killing them More sex = more likely to be pregnant More parental care depending on species (nuptial gifts) |
| What is promiscuity? | Multiple females and males, no bond |
| Males defending patches would lead to females... | Moving in groups |
| Resources being randomly dispersed would lead to what? | A scramble competition |
| If care of young enhances survival of young enough to compensate for the reduction in production of young then... | Expect parental care to evolve |
| Does parental investment maximize lifetime reproductive success or single bout of reproduction? | Lifetime reproductive success |
| Conditions that make monogamy likely for males | Biparental care increases for offspring survival (Benefits to monogamy high) • Seeking additional mates is costly (Costs of polygamy are High) |
| What is the coefficient of relatedness (r)? | Probability that a gene shared among the two individuals is identical by descent |
| Explain the Trivers-Willard hypothesis | Greater investment in sons in "good" times, greater investment in daughter in "bad" times Strong sons will impregnate lots of females, weak sons will not When times are bad, default to daughters, who are likely to at least mate once |
| Parental care benefits increases in tandem with what? | parental certainty |
| What are the mechanisms of kin recognition? | Familiarity (learned) Phenotype matching (innate or learned) Recognition alleles (innate) Rule of thumb/location |
| Why is kin recognition important? | Avoid inbreeding Evolution of altruism Cooperation |
| Define cooperation | An outcome in which two or more interacting individuals each receives a net benefit from their joint actions, despite the costs they may have to pay for undertaking such actions |
| Define "to cooperate" | To behave in such a way as to make the benefits that could be obtained from joint action possible even though they may not be achieved |
| In which contexts does cooperation occur? | Foraging, predation, antipredator behaviors, mating, play, aggressive interaction |
| How does tit for tat work? | Tit for tat is a strategy in which an individual cooperates on the initial encounter with a partner and subsequently copies its partner's previous move (operating on if-then/if partner cooperates, then I cooperate and vice versa) |
| When is byproduct mutualism likely to evolve? | Byproduct mutualism is more likely to evolve in harsh environments |
| Group selection models (trait-group selection models) can operate at these two levels | Within-group selection -Acts against cooperators (favors selfish types) Between-group selection -Favors cooperatio |
| What are dyadic interactions? | when two individuals interact in such a way that the fitness of each is affected by both its own action and the action of its partner |
| What are polyadic interactions? | interactions that involve more than two individuals |
| How are butterflies an example of mutualism? | Butterflies produce a sugary secretion that ants consume and in doing so they protect the butterfly larvae from predators like flies |
| Forage types in risk-sensitive foraging: | 1: every new food item is valued equally 2: every new food item decreases in value (satiated) 3: every new food item increases in value (starving) |
| What are linear programming models are used to predict? | nutrient foraging problems... How much time should a moose spend foraging energy-rich salt-poor terrestrial plants vs. energy-poor salt-rich aquatic plants? |
| Benefits of large foraging groups? | More foragers flush out more prey or Cooperative hunting creates a division of labor |
| Public information vs. social learning | social learning refers to learning something specific whereas public information refers to using the actions of others as a means of assessing the condition of the environment |
| What is an example of antipredator behavior? | ground squirrels and gopher snakes. Groups of squirrels attack snakes and individuals throw dirt and emit specific calls that signal to others that a snake predator is present |
| What are the two forms of antipredator behaviors? | Those that help prey avoid detection by predators Those that function once a prey encounters a predator |
| What are three ways animals can avoid predators? | Blending into their environment Being quiet Choose safe habitats |
| Cryptic is a synonym for.. | camouflaged |
| Mice example of camouflage? | Mice inland will be darker and mice by the beach will be lighter |
| What are the five antipredator actions? | Fleeing Approaching to obtain information Feigning death Signaling Fighting back |
| What do gulf toadfish do for antipredator behavior? | they reduce their mating calls in response to bottlenose dolphin sounds that are best within their hearing range |
| What is an example of safe habitat choice antipredator behavior? | Birds may choose alternative nesting locations like old termite mounds in order to counteract high predation on eggs and chicks |
| "You scratch my back, then i will scratch yours" is associated with? | Reciprocal altruism/direct reciprocity |
| Explain reciprocal altruism/direct reciprocity | Altruistic behavior will be a function of the probability that the recipient will reciprocate The cost of helping is offset by the likelihood of return benefit |
| What are the defining characteristics of eusocial behavior? | Reproductive division of labor that features specialized sterile worker castes Cooperative care of young Overlapping generations (older help younger) |
| Define altruism | Behavior that has a cost to the actor and a benefit to the recipient |
| What is the Ecological Intelligence Hypothesis? | Suggestion that evolution for increased brain size is due to the need to solve ecological problem |
| The larger the pack... | the lower the per capita food intake |
| What is risk-averse? | An animal meeting daily food needs will value each additional food item as less and less important |
| What is risk-prone? | A hungry animal will value each new food item as more and more important |
| What might cause differing sensitivity to risk? | Injury Offspring Starvation |
| Is marginal value theorem too simple? | it does not address include: Micro-nutrients Trace elements Toxic limits Rumen size/gut capacity Competition Monopolizability of resource |
| Name 2 optimal foraging theory models | Prey choice models (What prey to choose) Patch models (How long to stay in a patch) |
| What are the benefits of approaching a predator? | Decreasing current risk of predation Gathering information about a potential threat Warning other group members of the potential danger |
| How does feeding differ from foraging? | Feeding is consuming food Foraging is the act of searching for and acquiring food |
| What is feigning a synonym of? | faking |
| What is special about milkweed? | Milkweed contains chemicals that are toxic to birds and monarch butterflies store these chemicals in their tissue. Monarch butterflies have warning coloration to let the birds know that they will become sick if they eat them. |
| What is an example of an animal fighting back against a predator? | the bombardier beetle that uses chemical spraying and aiming |
| What is mobbing? | when a group of prey teams up to counterattack predator(s) |
| What is included in decisions about foraging? | What to eat Where to eat How much to eat How much time to spend If you want to share your food |
| What do sacrophages do? | scavenge or eat non-living organic matter |
| Define omnivore | eats both plants and animals |
| Name the trophic strategies | Herbivores, frugivores, folivores, nectarivores, granivores, carnivores, sacrophages, omnivores |
| browsing vs. grazing | Browsing (up high, ex, giraffes) grazing (near ground, ex. Grass eaters) |
| What is the challenge for carnivores? | locating food since prey is mobile |
| What is an example of predator-prey dynamics? | Murex snails have evolved thick shells and spines, thepredators in turn evolved powerful claws and jaws |
| What is prey switching? | The idea that predators favor the most abundant prey |
| What does the life-dinner principle state? | Prey are ahead in the race against predators |
| What are the key elements to avoid being eaten? | Avoid detection Evade capture Fight back |
| How can an animal avoid detection? | Blend in Be quiet Choose habitat wisely |
| What is crypsis? | something that makes prey hard to find (behavior, color, shape) |
| What is camouflage? | color or shape that hides animals from visual predators |
| What are the types of camouflage? | background matching countershading disruptive coloration color change |
| What is an example of background matching camouflage? | toads |
| What is an example of countershading camouflage? | dolphins |
| What is an example of disruptive coloration camouflage? | giraffes |
| What is an example of color change camouflage? | snowshoe hares |
| How are gulf toadfish an example of antipredator behavior? | they reduce their mating calls in response to bottlenose dolphin sounds that are best within their hearing range |
| What does aposematic coloration do? | Signal toxicity to predators |
| What are the two types of mimicry? | Batesian and Mullerian |
| What is Batesian mimicry? | Benign/palatable animals look like poisonous/distasteful one |
| What is Mullerian mimicry? | Noxious animals all converge on same appearance |
| What are ways to evade capture? | Anti-camouflage Mimicry/playing dead Group living Vigilance and alarm calls Running away |
| What is vigilance? | Having more eyes in a group to look for predators |
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