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Exam 3 Psychology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Algorithm | problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions |
| Analytical intelligence | aligned with academic problem solving and computations |
| Anchoring bias | Faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution |
| Artificial concept | Concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics |
| Availability heuristic | Faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you |
| Cognition | Thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory |
| Cognitive psychology | Field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think |
| Cognitive script | Set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time |
| Concept | category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences |
| Confirmation bias | Faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs |
| Convergent thinking | providing correct or established answers to problems |
| Creative intelligence | ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem |
| Creativity | ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities |
| Crystallized intelligence | characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it |
| Cultural intilligence | ability in which people can understand and relate to those in another culture |
| Divergent thinking | ability to think "outside the box" to arrive at novel solutions to a problem |
| Dyscalculia | learning disability that causes difficulty in learning or comprehending mathematics |
| Dysgraphia | learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly |
| Dyslexia | common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain |
| Emotional intelligence | ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others |
| Event schema | set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time |
| Fluid intelligence | ability to see complex relationships and solve problems |
| Flynn effect | observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation |
| Functional fixedness | inability to see an object as useful for any other use than the one for which it was intended |
| Grammar | set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon |
| Heuristic | mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem |
| Hindsight bias | belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't |
| Intelligence quotient (IQ) | score on a test designed to measure intelligence |
| Language | communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another |
| Lexicon | the words of a given language |
| Mental set | continually using an old solution to a problem without results |
| Morpheme | smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning |
| Multiple intelligence theory | Gardner's theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence |
| Natural concept | mental groupings that are created "naturally" through your experiences |
| Norming | administering a test to a large population so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for a population and its groups |
| Overgeneralization | extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule |
| Phoneme | basic sound unit of a given language |
| Practical intelligence | aka "street smarts" |
| Problem-solving strategy | method for solving problems |
| Prototype | best representation of a concept |
| Range of reaction | each person's response to the environment is unique based on their genetic make-up |
| Representative bias | Faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgment |
| Representative sample | subset of the population that accurately represent the general population |
| Role schema | set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role |
| Schema | mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts |
| Semantics | process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words |
| Standard deviation | Measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean |
| Standardization | method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent |
| Syntax | manner by which words are organized into sentences |
| Trial and error | problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found |
| Triarchic theory of intelligence | Sternberg's theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical |
| Working backwards | Heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result |
| Absentmindedness | lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else |
| Acoustic encoding | input of sounds, words, and music |
| Amnesia | Loss of long term memory that occurs as a result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma |
| Anterograde amnesia | loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma |
| Arousal theory | strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories |
| Atkinson-Shiffrin model | memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short term memory, and longer term memory |
| Automatic processing | encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words |
| Bias | how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events |
| Blocking | memory error in which you cannot access stored information |
| Chunking | organizing information into manageable bits or chunks |
| Construction | formulation of new memories |
| Declarative memory | type of long term memory of facts and events we personally experience |
| Effortful processing | encoding of information that takes effort and attention |
| Elaborative rehearsal | thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory |
| Encoding | input of information into the memory system |
| Engram | physical trace of memory |
| Episodic memory | type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experiences (autobiographical memory) |
| Equipotentiality hypothesis | some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories |
| Explicit memory | memories we consciously try to remember and recall |
| False memory syndrome | recall of false autobiographical memories |
| Flashbulb memory | exceptionally clear recollection of an important event |
| Forgetting | loss of information from long term memory |
| Implicit memory | memories that are not part of our consciousness |
| Levels of processing | information that is thought of more deeply becomes more meaningful and thus better committed to memory |
| Long-term memory | continuous storage of information |
| Memory | set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time |
| Memory-enhancing strategy | technique to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory |
| Misattribution | memory error in which you confuse the source of your information |
| Misinformation effect paradigm | after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event |
| Mnemonic device | memory aids that help organize information for encoding |
| Persistence | failure of the memory system that involves involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones |
| Proactive interference | old information hinders the recall of newly learned information |
| Procedural memory | type of long-term memory for making skilled actions |
| Recall | accessing information without cues |
| Recognition | identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue |
| Reconstruction | process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information |
| Rehearsal | repetition of information to be remembered |
| Relearning | learning information that was previously learned |
| Retrieval | act of getting information out of long term memory storage and back into conscious awareness |
| Retroactive interference | information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information |
| Retrograde amnesia | loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma |
| Self-reference effect | tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance |
| Semantic encoding | input of words and their meaning |
| Semantic memory | type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts |
| Sensory memory | storage of brief sensory events such as sights, sounds, and tastes |
| Short-term memory | holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used |
| Storage | creation of a permanent record of information |
| Suggestibility | effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories |
| Transience | Memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time |
| Visual encoding | input of images |
| Accommodation | adjustment of schema to accommodate new information different from what was already known |
| Adolescence | period of development that begins at puberty and ends at early adulthood |
| Adrenarche | maturing of the adrenal glands |
| Advance directive | a written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants |
| Assimilation | adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known |
| Attachment | long-standing connection or bond with others |
| Authoritarian parenting style | parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child |
| Authoritative parenting style | parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child's point of view |
| Avoidant attachment | characterized by child's unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves |
| Cognitive development | domain of lifespan development that examines learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity |
| Cognitive empathy | ability to take the perspective f others and to feel concern for others |
| Conception | when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote |
| Concrete operational stage | third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from about 7-11 years old, children can think logically about real (concrete) events |
| Conservation | idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothings is added or removed |
| Continuous development | view that development is a cumulative process; gradually improving on existing skills |
| Critical (sensitive) period | time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop |
| Developmental milestone | approximate ages at which children reach specific normative events |
| Discontinuous development | view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages |
| Disorganized attachment | characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused |
| do not resuscitate (DNR) | a legal document stating that if a person stops breathing or their heart stops, medical personnel are not to take steps to revive or resuscitate the patient |
| Egocentrism | preoperational child's difficulty in taking the perspective of others |
| Embryo | multi-cellular organism in its early stages of development |
| Emerging adulthood | newly defined period of lifespan development from 18 years old to the mid-20s; young people are taking longer to complete college, get a job, get married, and start a family |
| Fine motor skills | use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions |
| Formal operational stage | Final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from age 11+, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations |
| Gonadarche | maturing of the sex glands |
| Gross motor skills | use of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements |
| Health care proxy | a legal document that appoints a specific person to make medical decisions for a patient if they are unable to speak for themselves |
| Hospice | service that provides a death with dignity; pain management in a humane and comfortable environment |
| Living will | a written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants |
| Menarche | beginning of menstrual period |
| Mitosis | process of cell division |
| Motor skills | ability to move our body and manipulate objects |
| Nature | genes and biology |
| Newborn reflexes | inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation that all healthy babies are born with |
| Normative approach | study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones |
| Nurture | environment and culture |
| Object permanence | idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists |
| Permissive parenting style | parents make few demands and rarely use punishment |
| Physical development | domain of lifespan development that examines growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness |
| Placenta | structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing baby |
| Prenatal care | Medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus |
| Preoperational stage | Second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from ages 2-7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not understand mental operations and often think illogically |
| Primary sexual characteristics | organs specifically needed for reproduction |
| Psychosexual development | process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life |
| Psychosocial development | domain of lifespan development that examines emotions, personality, and social relationships |
| Resistant attachment | characterized by the child's tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when they attempt to interact with the child |
| Reversibility | principle that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition |
| Secondary sexual characteristics | physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs |
| Secure attachment | characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore |
| Sensorimotor stage | first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; from birth through age 2, a child learns about the world through senses and motor behavior |
| Socioemotional selectivity theory | social support/friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in earlier years |
| Spermarche | first male ejaculation |
| Stage of moral reasoning | process proposed by Kohlberg; humans move through three stages of moral development |
| Temperament | innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment |
| Teratogen | biological, chemical, or physical environmental agent that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus |
| Uninvolved parenting style | parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don't respond to the child's needs and make relatively few demands |
| Zygote | structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and placenta |
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trinann04
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