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Psych chaps 9-11
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Developmental psychology | Examines age-related physical, cognitive, & socioemotional changes across the lifespan |
| Physical development | biologically driven progression |
| Cognitive development | memory, problem solving, decision making, language, & intelligence |
| Socioemotional development | Social behavior, emotions, & changes experienced in relationships, feelings, & overall disposition |
| Biopsychosocial perspective | Recognizes contributions and interplay of biological, psychological, and social forces shaping human development |
| Cross-sectional method | Examines people of different ages at a single point in time |
| Longitudinal method | One sample of people over a period of time to determine age-related changes |
| Chromosomes | Inherited threadlike structures composed of DNA |
| Zygote | Fusion of sperm and egg |
| XX indicates… | female |
| XY indicates… | male |
| Every cell (expect red blood cells and sex cells) has… | a set of 23 pairs of chromosomes |
| Monozygotic twins | Identical twins develop from one egg inseminated at conception, then split |
| Dizygotic twins | Fraternal twins develop from two eggs inseminated by two sperm |
| Genotype | Features that are in your genes; it cannot be seen on the outside |
| Phenotype | Physical features that can be seen on the outside |
| Teratogens | An agent or factor that causes malformation of an embryo (ex: alcohol) |
| Piaget & cognitive development | infant cognitive abilities are different from an adult's |
| Sensorimotor | first stage in Piaget's theory (0-2 years old); object permanence; babies use skills they were born with |
| Preoperational | second stage in Piaget's theory (2-7 years old); egocentrism; conservation error; children use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play |
| concrete operational | third stage in Piaget's theory (7-11 years old); logical thinking in reference to concrete objects & circumstances |
| formal operational | fourth stage in Piaget's theory (12 years and older); more logical and systematic thinking |
| Schema (Piaget) | Process of acquiring information/knowledge |
| Assimilation | Process for how we add info or experiences into our existing structures of knowledge or schemas |
| Accommodation | altering one's existing ideas (schemas) abt how the world operates in response to new info and experiences |
| Scaffolding | the passive, natural process through which new concepts are formed, esp in early childhood |
| Zone of Proximal Development | the difference between what a learner can do w/o help and what they can achieve with help from a skilled partner |
| Temperament | Characteristic differences in behavioral patterns and emotional reactions that are evident from birth |
| Mary Ainsworth & Attachment | Refers to degree to which infants feel emotional connection w/ primary caregivers (assessed using the Strange Situation paradigm) |
| Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development | Proposed that human development is marked by eight psychological stages from infancy to old age |
| Trust vs mistrust | Birth up to 1 year. Positive: trusts and has faith in others; Negative: mistrusts and expects the worst of people |
| Autonomy vs shame and doubt | 1 to 3 years old. Positive: learns to be autonomous and independent; Negative: learns to feel shame and doubt when freedom to explore is restricted |
| Initiative vs guilt | 3 to 6 years old. Positive: becomes more responsible, shows the ability to follow though; Negative: develops guilts and anxiety when unable to handle responsibilities |
| Menarche | First menstruation |
| Spermarche | A male experiences his first ejaculation |
| Adolescent egocentrism | Intense focus on self and feelings of immortality (can lead to increased risky behaviors) |
| Ego Identity vs Role Confusion | Involves adolescent identity formation and trying out new ideas. Positive resolution = stronger sense of values, beliefs, and goals; Negative resolution = role confusion |
| Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development | Focused on specific changes in beliefs about right and wrong |
| Preconventional moral reasoning | Age range is young children. Right and wrong are determined by the consequences. |
| Conventional moral reasoning | This emerges around puberty. Right and wrong are informed by the expectations of society and important others, not simply personal consequences |
| Postconventional moral reasoning | Age range is adulthood. Right and wrong are determined by the individual's beliefs about morality, which may be inconsistent with society's rules rules and regulations |
| Critics of Kohlberg's Theory | Women's moral reasoning not represented. Theory applicable to Western, collectivist cultures. Moral behavior defined, but not predicted. |
| Intimacy vs isolation | Young adulthood. Positive: forming deep, meaningful relationships; Negative: failure results in isolation |
| Generativity vs stagnation | Middle adulthood. Positive: feeling like we have made an impact on the next gen; Negative: failure manifests as boredom, conceit, selfishness |
| Integrity vs despair | Late adulthood. Positive: sense of accomplishment and satisfaction; Negative: failure leads to us feeling regret and dissatisfaction |
| Extrinsic motivation | The drive or urge to continue a behavior because of external reinforcers (ex: wanting to win for maybe price money) |
| Intrinsic motivation | The drive or urge to continue a behavior because of internal reinforcers (ex: wanting to win because it makes you feel good) |
| Maslow's hierarchy | From bottom to top: physiological, safety, love & belongingness, esteem, self-actualization, self-transcendence (the sequence isn't necessarily set in stone) |
| Deci and Ryan | Humans are both w 3 universal needs that drive them in the direction of optimal functioning: need for competence, relatedness, and autonomy |
| Murray | Human are motivated by 20 fundamental needs |
| McClelland & colleagues | Some people are motivated by the need for power |
| Set point for weight | Stable weight that is maintained despite variability in exercise and food intake |
| Settling point for weight | Set weight loss & gain in most humans is related to the patterns of diet and physical activity that people "settle" into as habits` |
| Emotions | Psychological state; subjective or inner experience, physiological component, and behavioral expression; initiated by a stimulus; more likely to motivate action |
| Mood | Long-term emotional states; less intense than emotions; lack distinct beginning and end |
| James-Lange | body changes lead to emotions |
| Cannon-Bard | body changes & emotions happen together |
| Schachter-Singer | our thoughts about our body changes lead to emotions |
| Lazarus | our thoughts about our situation lead to emotions |
| Display rules | framework or guidelines for when. how, and where an emotion is expressed (influenced by culture; taught early in life) |
| Amydala | part of the brain responsible for fear emotion |
| Sexuality | human nature encompassing everything that makes us sexual beings; sexual activities, attitudes, & behaviors |
| Sex | classification of someone as male, female, or intersex based on biological characteristics |
| Gender | the dimension of masculinity & femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics |
| Androgens | male hormones secreted by the testes in males & by the adrenal glands in both males & females |
| Testosterone | an androgen that plays a role in determining whether the fetus develops male or female genitals |
| Estrogen | the female hormone secreted primarily by the ovaries & by the adrenal glands in both males & females |
| Thelarche | breast development |
| Intersexual | having "conflicting or ambiguous biological indicators" or male or female in sexual structures & organs |
| Differences of sex development | Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY); Turner's Syndrome (XO) |
| Gender Identity | the feeling or sense of being male, female, or an alternative gender |
| Nonbinary | gender identity that falls outside of the categories of man or woman |
| Gender roles | the collection of actions, beliefs, & characteristics that a culture associated w/ masculinity & femininity |
| Gender schemas | psychological or mental guidelines that dictate how to be masculine or feminine |
| Androgyny | the tendency to cross gender-role boundaries, exhibiting behaviors associated w/ both genders |
| transgender | people whose gender identity & expression do not typically match the gender assigned to them at birth (can be temporary or persistent) |
| Transsexual | individuals who seek or undergo a social transition to the other gender, & who may make changes to their body thru surgery & medical treatment |
| Gender affirmation | using medical treatments to transition |
| Masters & Johnson | human sexual response model; concluded that most people experience similar responses |
| Evolutionary psychology | sex ensures the survival of the species |
| kin altruism | gay men & women support reproduction in families by helping a relative care for children |
| Age at first marriage | 27 for women, 29 for men |
| Odds for 10-year marrige | 68% for women, 70% for men |
| Odds for 20-year marriage | 52% for women, 56% for men |
| Sexual dysfunction | significant disturbance in the ability to respond sexual or to gain pleasure from sex |
| sexual scripts | cultural rules that tell us what activities are appropriate & do not interfere w/ healthy sexual activity |
| Paraphilia | uncommon sexual acts (fetishism, exhibitionism, sexual masochism/sadism, voyeurism) |
| Refractory period | the period of time in which a man cannot achieve another orgasm following a previous one (women do not have this) |
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