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Social Psychology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| How do people affect us? | How we interpret events, How we feel about ourselves, How we behave |
| Hindsight Bias | tendency to believe that we had predicted an outcome ahead of time, after learning of the results |
| How does science work? | clearly define a problem or a question, collect data pertinent to said question, interpret data, implications of data |
| Operationalization | matching the question up with the idea being tested |
| Observation | watching in either a naturalistic or lab setting |
| Archival | Uses existing records as the data source |
| Survey | asking questions and evaluating the answers according to some coefficient |
| Experiments | Manipulation and control which infer causality |
| Correlational | things that occur together |
| Experimental Designs | Require causation, variables, and randomization |
| Variables | Independent, Dependent, Extraneous, Confounding |
| Standardized Procedures | Conditions are held constant during the conduct of an experiment |
| Experimental Reality | Experimental realism (feel reall to participants), Mundane realism (look and feel real to outside real) |
| Demand Characteristics | Cues that suggest how participants should act or respond |
| Validity | Internal validity, External validity |
| Ethical Guidelines | Informed consent and voluntary participation, risks and benefits, use of deception, confidentiality of records, information about the study and debriefing, IRB approval |
| Social Cognition | processes by which information about people is processed and stored. topics include schematic processing, reconstructive memory, reasoning, problem-solving, counterfactual thinking, and stereotyping |
| Memory | Retention of information over time |
| Basic process of Memory | Encoding, Storage, Retrieval (Attention and Schemas are also important for memory) |
| Schemas | Mental representations of of objects or categories |
| Social factors that might affect LTM | Accessibility, Stereotypes, Heuristics, In-groups/Out-groups |
| Cognitive factors that might affect LTM | Brain damage, Distractions, How much must be learned, Length of time given, How important it is at the time, How well you learned it, Time since you learned it |
| More cognitive factors that might affect LTM | Importance, Amount, Frequency of review, First or last thing learned, Similarity to other material, How it was presented, Competing tasks, Organizations, Effort versus auto-pilot |
| Accessibility | Ease with which a schema is activated. Priming increases accessibility. With chronic accessibility, some schema's are habitually activated |
| Availability Heuristic | Judgements based on how quickly or how easily examples come to mind. Events that are more available in memory are judged as more likely to occur |
| Representative Heuristic | Categorize based on how representative the object is of the larger category. |
| Illusory Correlation | Believing 2 categories are related when they are not. |
| Perseverance Effect | Hold onto self-evaluative beliefs even in the face of dis-confirming evidence. |
| Counterfactual Thinking | How past events might have turned out. Upward counterfactual is how things could have been better. Downward counterfactual is how things could have been worse. |
| Hot Cognition | Mixes feelings with thinking. Related to the self in a social context. |
| Self in social context | Self-serving judgements (self in a positive light). Self-serving perception of others (improve our evaluation of others). Self-serving activation of stereotypes (strategically make us look good). |
| Flashbulb Memories | Vivid detailed accounts or recollections of particularly important events. These can be idiosyncratic or history based. |
| Attribution Theory | Intuitive scientists and covariation. |
| Fundamental attribution error | Overestimate internal causes of behavior, underestimate external causes of behavior. |
| Non-verbal Behavior | eye contact, facial expressions, interpersonal distance, vocal cues, gestures, posture |
| Cultural differences in non-verbal behavior | Display rules (when, to whom, and how), hand gestures, interpersonal distance. |
| Self-perception | Looking glass self (integrate others judgments about us) Social comparison (Upward and downward) Use behavior to infer attitudes (especially when ambiguous). |
| Overjustification | Counter-intuitive: internal vs external rewards. |
| Self-serving judgments | Enhance our perceptions of self-worth. Have unrealistic optimism but have cultural differences. |
| Self-efficacy | Belief that you are capable |
| Illusions of control | Belief about the controllabilty of uncontrollable events. |
| Self-discrepancy theory | What happens when actual self, ideal self, and ought self conflict. |
| Actual self | How people believe they really are. |
| Ideal self | How people would like themselves to be. |
| Ought self | How people think they ought to be. |
| Impression management | The control of information we make available. |
| Self-presentation | Strategically present ourselves in different ways. |
| Actor/observer difference | The way we view a situation versus how outside observers view a situation (I drive fast because of special circumstances, other think I drive fast because I am a jerk) |
| Dispositions | Consistencies across time and settings. Enduring individual traits and differences |
| Self-esteem | a type of disposition. people's judgement of their own worthiness. |
| Self-concept | formed through social comparison and self-perception. |
| optimal distinctiveness theory | examines how we strike a balance between similarity (with an ingroup) and distinctiveness (as an individual) |
| Self-esteem | derives from personal experience, reflected appraisals by others, relationships, social comparison, and group comparisons |
| Narcissism | represents an exaggerated love of self. |
| Gender Stereotypes | expectations about how men and woman should behave. |
| Self-monitoring | individual differences in relying on external or internal cues to guide behavior |
| Need for cognition | individual differences in liking to think |
| Achievement motivation | individual differences in performance goals |
| Uncertainty orientation | individual differences in learning new things about oneself |
| Archival research | Refers to correlational investigation that are based on preexisting information obtained by the researcher |
| Correlational research | Refers to studies in which investigations measure two or more concepts and see whether the concepts are associated with one another |
| Debriefing | A full and complete description of the study’s design, purpose, and expected results are given to participants after the session is completed |
| Demand characteristics | Cues in a study that suggest to participants how they are supposed to respond |
| Dependent variable | Those concepts that are measured by the researcher and might be affected by the independent variable |
| Experimental realism | the extent to which the experimental setting feels realistic and involving to participants |
| Experimental research | empirical investigations in which researchers manipulate one concept (or more than one) and assess the impact of the manipulation(s) on one or more other concepts |
| External validity | refers to the extent to which research results can be generalized beyond the current sample |
| Extraneous variables | potential sources of error in the experiment and should be controlled |
| Factorial design | two or more independent variables |
| Field experiment | conducted in settings outside the laboratory, tend to increase both mundane realism and external validity |
| Hypothesis | specific predictions about what should occur if a theory is valid |
| Independent variable | manipulated factors in experiments |
| Informed consent | participants are told beforehand what to expect in the study |
| Institutional review board (IRB) | committee that ensures the procedures will not cause unacceptable harm to participants |
| Interaction | effect of one manipulation depends on the level of another manipulation |
| Internal validity | the extent to which the research yields clear causal information |
| Mundane realism | the extent to which the experimental setting looks and feels like the outside world. |
| Observational studies | correlational investigations in which the researcher watches participants and codes measures from the observed behavior |
| Operational definition | specific, observable responses that are used to measure a concept |
| Participant-observation research | special kind of observational study, in which the researcher actually joins an ongoing group to observe the members’ behavior |
| Psychometrics | a sub-discipline within psychology that is devoted to understanding and refining measures for psychological measurements |
| Random assignment | each participant in the experiment is equally likely to take part in any of the experimental conditions |
| Random sampling | every person in a particular population has the same probability of being in the study |
| Reliability | the consistency or stability of scores on a measure, both over time and across judges |
| Representative sample | a group of respondents that accurately reflects the larger population |
| Single-factor experiment | one independent variable |
| Socially desirable responding | respondents motivated to create a positive impression of themselves |
| Survey | correlational studies in which the researcher asks questions to respondents |
| Theory | explanations of why particular events or outcomes occur |
| Unobtrusive measures | the participants do not realize that the measures are being taken |
| Validity | refers to whether scores on a measure really represent the underlying concept they are supposed to represent |
| Behaviorism | Attempts to explain behavior purely in terms of stimulus-response connections established through experience and reinforcement. |
| Gestalt Theory | Assumes that people’s overall, subjective interpretations of objects are more important than the objects’ external, physical features. |
| Social contract | Idea that human societies have developed some basic rules of social and moral conduct, which members of the societies implicitly agree to follow |
| Social Psychology | Scientific study of how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other people |
| Encoding | getting information into memory and includes attention, comprehension, and storage |
| Retrieval | refers to getting information out of memory |
| Automatic process | a judgment or thought that we cannot control - it occurs without intention, very efficiently and something beneath our awareness |
| controlled process | a judgment or thought that we command - it is intentional, requires significant cognitive resources, and occurs within our awareness. |
| Blank Lineup | group of individuals (a lineup) that does not include the suspect |
| Sequential Lineup | each person in the group (lineup)separately |
| Mood-congruent recall | tendency for positive or negative feelings to make similarly valenced information more accessible in memory |
| False Consensus effect | assumption that other peopel share their attitudes and behaviors to a greater extent than is actually the case |
| Discounting principle | the perceived role of a cause will be discounted (reduced) if other plausible causes are present |
| Augmentation principle | the perceived role of a cause will be augmented (increased) if other factors are present that would work against the behavior |
| Relative deprivation | feelings of anger or resentment about one's outcomes based on comparison with better-off others |
| False hope syndrome | individuals repeatedly try (unsuccessfully) to achieve a goal despite previous failures |
| Ingratiation | behavior that is designed to make someone like you |
| Dispositions | individuals' consistencies across time and setting in a specific type of feeling, thought, and/or action, which make individuals different from other people |
| Parental investment hypothesis | having children is more costly for women than for men |
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