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Unit 4
Learning
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Learning | the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors |
| Habituation | decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus |
| Associative learning | learning that certain events occur together the events may be two stimulus (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning) |
| stimulus | any event or situation that evokes a response |
| respondent behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus |
| operant behavior | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences |
| cognitive learning | the acquisition of mental information, whether be observing events, by watching others, or through language |
| classical conditioning | a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli, as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food) |
| Behaviorism | the view that psychology 1. should be an objective science that 2. studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most researcher today agree with 1 but not 2 |
| neutral stimulus NS | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning |
| unconditioned stimulus UCS | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally/ automatically triggers an unconditioned response |
| unconditioned response UCR | in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in the mouth) |
| conditioned response CR | in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus |
| conditioned stimulus CS | in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus. comes to trigger a conditioned response |
| acquisition | in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response |
| higher-order conditioning | a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. also called second-order conditioning |
| extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response, occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus, occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced |
| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
| generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
| discrimination | in classical conditioning the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
| operant conditioning | a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punishment |
| law of effect | Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely |
| operant chamber | in operant conditioning research, a chamber (Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking |
| reinforcement | in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
| shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
| discriminative stimulus | in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement) |
| positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response |
| negative reinforcement | increasing behavior by stopping/ removing aversive stimuli. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that when, removed after a response, strengthens the response. Not a punishment |
| primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
| reinforcement schedule | a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced |
| continuous reinforcement schedule | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
| partial reinforcement schedule | reinforcing a response only part of the time, results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement |
| fixed-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses |
| variable-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
| fixed-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
| variable-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals |
| punishment | an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows |
| biofeedback | a system for electronically recording, amplifying and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension |
| preparedness | a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value |
| instinctive drift | the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns |
| cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it |
| latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
| insight | a sudden realization of a problem's solution, contrast with strategy-based solutions |
| intrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake |
| extrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment |
| problem-focused coping | attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor |
| emotion- focused coping | attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction |
| personal control | our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless |
| learned helplessness | the hopelessness ad passive resignation an animal or person learning when unable to avoid repeated aversive events |
| external locus of control | the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate |
| internal locus of control | the perception that we control our own fate |
| self control | the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards |
| observational learning | learning by observing others. Also called social learning |
| positive reinforcement | adding desirable stimulus to increase behavior |
| negative reinforcement | removing undesirable stimulus to increase behavior |
| positive punishment | increasing undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior |
| negative punishment | removing desirable stimulus to decrease behavior |
| conditioned reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer, also known as a secondary reinforcer |
| modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
| mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we preform certain actions or observe another doing so. the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy |
| prosocial behavior | positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior |
| radical behaviorism | belief that all external behavior, or internal behavior events such as feeling and thoughts – are ultimately learned and controlled by the relationships between the situation that immediately precedes the behavior and the consequences that follow it |
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