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Psychobio Exam 2
Exam 2 Psychobio
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| System neuroscience | process in different domains (nervous/ sensory, etc) |
| Cornea | transparent layer in front of the eye (front layer) |
| Iris | group of muscles that control the size of the pupil |
| Lens | a convex structure reflects light to be focused on the retina, the light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eyeball (behind the pupil) |
| Photoreceptors | cells that line the retina responsible for visual transduction where light (photons) are turned into action potentials |
| Fovea | point of central focus (focal point) |
| Retina | back of the eye/ packed full of the cells called photorecptors --> greater concentration of rods in the periphery/ cones in fovea |
| Rods | sensitive of low levels of light/ unable to relay color info --> work better in dim light |
| Cones | less sensitive than rods, sensitive than rods, sensitive to three wavelengths of light visual acuity (being able to see things in fine detail) |
| Wavelength EXAMPLE | wavelength= color --> brightness= amplitude |
| Transduction | transformation of physical signal into an electric (neurochemical) chemical signal --> chemical that will react w/ light, open ion channels, starts an action potential |
| Lateral inhibition | a process in which cells, when stimulated. inhibit the actvity of neighboring cells / sharpen boarder |
| Ganglion cells (front of layer) + Bipolar cells | connect to optic nerve |
| Horizontal cell | responsible for lateral inhibition / inhibit neighboring bipolar cells |
| Convergence | is the pooling of info from cones/ rods onto ganglion cells --> provides detail at the level of the retina |
| Trichromacy | basically states that color perception arises from the three diff types of cones that we have in the eye that process three diff wavelengths of light |
| Color mixing of RGB (red, green, blue) | the mixing of diff colors, such as blue and red wavelengths |
| Dichromat | two colors |
| Monochromat | one color |
| Opponent process theory | theory that states that color perception depends on receptors that make opposite responses to three pairs of colors --> one type of receptor will be stimulated vs. the other |
| Visual pathway | left side of visual field enters the right side of brain → right visual field enters left side of brain |
| Optic nerve | the projection from the retina (output of the eye)/ meet at the chaism |
| Optic chaism | crossing point of the optic nerve |
| Optic radiations | run from the chiasm to the LGN (laternal geniculate nucleus) → projection from left/ right visual field |
| Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) | the subdivision of the thalamus (outside of thalamus) responsible for processing visual info |
| Parvocellular | small cells exist in LGN slow, colorful → Layer 3-6= process info abt color/ detail |
| Magnocellular | large cells, fast, contrast/ edges → Layer 1 & 2 of LGN= receive input from cones/ movement |
| Receptive field (RF) | of a cell corresponds to the region of visual space where changes in luminance influence the activity of a single neuron |
| On-center/ Off surround | positive signals in middle/ outside negative signals |
| Off center/ On-surround | negative signals in middle/ positive signals on outside |
| Center-surround cells | light presented on the central region of the RF has one influence, while light presented to the surrounding RF has opposite influence |
| Orientation tuning cells | cells in the visual system that only fore when the input contains a line segment of a specific orientation |
| Middle temporal lobe (MT)/ visual area 5 (V5) | these cells are sensitive to the direction of motion |
| Bottom-up processing | perception is entirely dependent on sensory inputs |
| Top-down processing | high order cognitive factors influence perception |
| Binding problem | how do all these visual features being represented/ coded come back together to perceive a coherent world |
| Gestalt Principles | the whole is greater than the sum of its parts |
| Similarity | features which are similar/ grouped together as a part of the same object |
| Proximity | features which are close to each other group together in reality that’s how it is viewed and that are close together are part of the same object |
| Good continuation | figures w/ edges that are smooth/ continuous more likely to be part of the same object |
| Closure | the perceptual system has a tendency to “fill in the blanks” to perceive a complete object when gaps are present |
| Constancies | an unconscious process that preserves perception |
| Color constancy | objects appear to remain the same color in diff lighting |
| Size constancy | when the retinal image chnages, people unconsciously assume that size remains constant/ consider the distance an object is from them (we infer that this person moved further away) |
| Binocular disparity | differences in the image location of an object seen by the left/ right eyes, resulting from the eyes’ horizontal separation |
| Interposition | is a monocular cue that occurs when one object obscures another, which causes the object that is partially covered to appear more distant |
| Linear perspective | parallel lines that recede into the distance appear to get closer or converge |
| Texture gradients | gradual change in appearance of object from coarse to fine… with coarser objects appearing closer than fine |
| Motion parallax | when we are moving, objects that are closer appear to be moving faster |
| Optic flow | directional movement of objects create an appearance of a change in depth/ motion |
| Audition | sensory modality that transforms pressure waves into sound (our sense of hearing) |
| Decibel (dB) | unit of sound intensity 0-130 dB (anything below zero decibels can’t really hear) Frequency= lower pitch → lower frequency wave |
| Hertz (Hz) | unit of sound frequency (cycles/ second) 20 Hz- 20,000 Hz 4 complete cycles in that range= 4 hertz |
| Compression | when a sound wave is higher frequency= it is compressed |
| Refraction | lower frequency expansion sound waves |
| Pinna (outer ear) | is the visible part of the outer ear directs sound waves into middle ear involved in localizing sounds in vertical plane |
| Auditory canal | tube connecting the center (opening) of the pinna w/ the eardrum channels sound into the middle ear sound waves resonate within middle ear |
| Tympanic membrane (eardrum) | is a cone-shaped membrane that converts sound to mechanical vibration |
| Ossicles | three serial bones that conduct sound vibration from the tympanic membrane to the cochlea, consist of the malleus, incus, stapes |
| Eustachian tube | regulates pressure in the middle ear/ drain secretions EX: ear infections in young kids bc flat on middle ear/ not fully developed |
| Semicircular canals/ otolith organs (sit on top of cochlea) | as part of the vestibular system, are involved in our sense or orientation/ balance |
| Oval window | connection point of the stapes, vibrates structure of the inner ear |
| Round window | part of cochela, when stapes push it in the round window comes out |
| Cochlea | double-walled, fluid-filled tube, curled into a snail shape w/ 2.5 turns, contains hair cells where auditory transduction occurs High frequencies |
| Tectorial membrane (sits on top of basilar membrane) | Vibration of the scala vestibuli (by sound) leads to movement |
| Basilar membrane (membrane in the center of the hair cells) | Movement of the tectotiral membrane bends hair cells |
| Tonotopically organized | where diff segments process the different frequencies of sound we can hear |
| Apex | low frequencies |
| Sylvian fissure | separates the frontal/ temporal lobes |
| Sound frequency in the cortex can be encoded by | place code phase locking |
| Sound intensity in the cortex can be encoded by | Population Rate |
| Superior olivary nuclei of the pons | play special roles in process info abt left/ right location |
| Horizontal plane | differences in timing/ intensity of sound when they hit the left vs. right ear can provide info |
| Interaural level difference | level of amplitude of stimulus is louder in the ear it’s closest to |
| Interaural timing difference | Sound localization is encoded w/ respect in timing/ hit that ear its closest to first |
| Deafness (complete loss in hearing) | rarely caused by damage to the cortex/ instead caused by damage to the cochlea, auditory nerve or brainstem nuclei |
| Conduction deafness | blockage in how sound waves are propagated |
| Nerve deafness | damage to hair cells |
| Hearing loss | can range from mild to profound/ can affect one or both ears/ be frequency specific |
| Amusia | tone deafness impacts the ability to detect/ reproduce musical notes |
| Tinnitus | ringing in the ears is thought to be caused by hyperactivity of the cochlear amplifier (due to external damage) but may also be central in nature |
| Vertical plane | location of objects above/ below |
| Medial superior olive (MSO) | important brain center that computes sound location by comparing small differences in arrival time at both ears Located in pons |
| Latereal superior olive (LSO) | measuring the difference in sound intensity between the ears Located in pons |
| Vestibular system | is the sensory system that helps maintain balance, posture, equilibrium |
| Semicircular canals | placed at right angles to each other, represent 3 axes of rotation (vertical, anteroposterior, transverse) |
| Cupra | organ that senses rotation |
| Otolith organs | senses linear acceleration |
| Saccule | up + down/ forward + backward |
| Utricel | hortizontal |
| Somesthesis | our sense of touch |
| Mechanoreceptors | touch/ carried by Aβ (Group II) nerve fibers |
| Proprioceptors | perception/ awareness of position movement of the body --> carried by Aα (Group I) fibers |
| Nociceptors | pain/ carried by Aδ (Group III) and C (Group IV) fibers |
| Free nerve endings | pain, heat, cold --> end in dendrites that pick up info/ transfer this info into pain, etc. |
| Merkel's disks | sustained touch/pressure --> close to surface of skin/ ending in disks sensitive to pressure if apply pressure= it physically changes shape of disk that opens up ion channels to cause action potential (cutaneous info) |
| Meissner's corpuscles | slow vibration/ texture --> more like rods close to surface of skin/ transfer info slow vibration (encodes info abt texture/ cutaneous info) |
| Pacinian corpuscles | rapid vibration (deep receptors) |
| Krause corpuscles | cold (temp)/ rapid vibration (deep receptors) |
| Root hair plexus | hair movement (bending of hair cause bending of the plexus) |
| Tonic receptors | are slowly adapting receptors that respond for the duration of a stimulus (tonically firing over a certain period of time) |
| Phasic receptors | rapidly adapt to a constant stimulus/ turn off |
| Thermoreceptors | free nerve endings w/ high thermal sensitivity temperature change activates family of ion channels (TRP) on receptor membrane |
| Parts of Thermoreceptors | Heat pain= 45-60 C Warmth receptors= narrow temp range (30-50 C) Cold pain= 5-15 C Cold receptors= 5-45 C |
| Nociceptors (pain) | sensory nervous system response to painful stimuli |
| Acute pain | local damage- cut, burns, broken bones, incision, ischemia |
| Chronic pain | long term damage associated w/ injury (inflammatory/ neuropathic pain) |
| Substance P | peptide (11 amino acid chain) released when damage/ inflammation occur in the body |
| Receptor | neurokinin type 1 (NK- 1R) found on many cells types in the body, including neurons --> works by altering cell signaling pathways to transmit pain |
| 2 types of Fibers (picks up substance P) | 1. A delta fibers: fast/ intense --> thin myleinated fibers/ transmit info abt acute pain 2. C fibers: slow --> unmylienated fibers/ transmit info abt chronic pain |
| Dermatome | each dorsal root (dorsal horn) innervates a field of skin |
| Cervical (C1- C8) | stimulate muscles movement in your neck, shoulder, arm, hand, provide sensation |
| Thoracic (T1- T12) | lower parts of body no longer interface w/ somatic nervous system |
| Lumbar (L1-L5) | region of the back usually cause symptoms that are felt in the hips, legs, feet |
| Sacral (S1- S5) | S1= nerves affect the hips/ groin S5= nerves affect the perineal area |
| 1st major Pathway of Somatosensory System | 1. Dorsal column-medial lemniscal (subdivision of the medulla): receives info from sensory receptors --> carries to spinal cord to medulla --> medial lemniscus to thalamus --> transmit to somatosensory cortex - TOUCH - Large/ fast myelinated fibers |
| 1st major Pathway of Somatosensory System (CONTINUED) | Dorsal - high spatial (discrimination) - temporal resolution - large/ fast myelinated fibers - proprioception (sense movement, action, location) |
| 2nd major Pathway of Somatosensory System | Anterolateral/ Spinothalamic: comes through dorsal horn --> transmits info from skin to medulla/ thalamus --> primary somasentory cortex - THERMOCEPTION/ PAIN - Low spatial/ temporal resolution - small/ slow unmyelinated fibers |
| Somatotopic organization | spatial orientation of signals from different parts of the body |
| Homunculus | distorted representation of the human body based on neurological map of the areas/ proportions of human brain to process motor/ sensory functions |
| Gate control theory | activation of A fibers sends inhibitory signals to C fibers/ block that sensation of pain in the C fibers |
| Referred pain | painful percept in a part of the body other than its source due to damage of body, NOT in a part of body ur feeling the pain |
| Gustation (taste) | important special sensation that affects diet/ human pleasure |
| Chemosensation | includes both our sense of taste (flavor) (gustatory system)/ our sense of small (olfactory system) |
| Papillae | small raised protrusions that contain taste buds/ NOT all of them are taste buds |
| 1st cranial nerve in gustation pathway | Vagus Nerve (X): longest cranial nerve in the body --> containing motor/ sensory functions in both afferent/ effernet glands |
| 2nd cranial nerve in gustation pathway | Glossophrayngeal Nerve (IX): provides motor innervation to the stylopharyngeus muscle (elevate pharynx) |
| 3rd cranial nerve in gustation pathway | Facial Nerve (VII): carries nerve fibers that control facial movement/ expression |
| Medulla (solitary nucleus) | located lateral to the motor nucleus of the vagus nerve --> inner region of organ (kindey/ adrenal gland) |
| Thalamus (VPM) | principle structure for conveying noncicpetive info from certain neurons to higher cortical regions |
| Cortex (insual) | gustatory/ sensorimotor processing, risk-reward behavior, autonomic, pain pathways, vestibular functioning |
| Olfactory sensory neurons | neurons that process the sense of smell |
| Olfactory epithelium | lies on superior part of each nostril (abt 2.4 square cm) along nasal mucosa |
| Basil nerves | make olfactory epithelium every 2 months |
| Olfactory neurons | relay info to the olfactory bulb/ brain via olfactory tract |
| Olfactory pathway | signals transduce in the olfactory bulb are than sent via the olfactory tract to olfactory cortex |
| Amygdala | involved w/ experiencing emotions |
| Thalamus (MD) | mediodorsal nucleus (MD) represents just one piece of a complex relay structure situated within the brain |
| Oribitofrontal cortex (OFC) | involved in sensory irrigation/ decision-making expectation |
| Piriform/ entorhinal cortex | using coding stratgies to represent odor identity/ intensity --> sensory input from the olfactory buld is transformed by intracortical circuitry |
| Anosmia | a loss of sense of smell |
| Place code | region of the auditory cortex stimulated indicates what frequency the sound is |
| Phase locking | <4kHz, timing of auditory neuron locked to sound wave → phase of the waves for action potential lock to phase of waves in auditory system |
| Population | louder sounds= more neurons firing |
| Rate | auditory nerve firing fast |
| simple cells | perfetential firing for not just orientation but LOCATION/ ones that only respond to specific orientation/ only respond to one thing in the receptive field |
| complex cells | preferential firing for an ORIENTATION but NOT a location |
| V2/ V3 | secondary/ tertiary visual cortex |
| Dorsal stream of visual processing | Posterior material cortex/ goes up w/ the “where” pathway/ coordinating vision w/ movement |
| Ventral stream of visual processing | Interior temporal cortex/ goes down w/ the “what” pathway |
| V4 | color processing |
| Inferior temporal cortex (IT) | object processing |
| Serial processing | brain activity moves from point to point EX: A → B→ C |
| Paralell processing | brain activity occuring at same point in time EX: A → B & C |
| Primary auditory cortex (A1) | superior temporal cortex which cells respond best to tones of particular frequency |
| smooth muscle | long thin muscle fibers that control the digestive system/ other systems |
| cardic muscles | control heart beat |
| skeletal muscles | long/ cylinder striated (striped) muscle fibers, control movement of the body in relation to enviroment (anything voluntary like working out) |
| fast twitch fiber | fast contractions, easily fatigue (sprint), anaerobic (white/ paleish pink) --> not require O2 |
| slow twitch fibers | slow contractions, resistant to fatigue (long distance), aerobic (dark red) --> require O2 |
| Neuromuscular junction | termination of a motor neuron on skeletal muscle --> motor neuron will release acetlcholine in order for action potential to occur |
| proprioceptors | cells that detect the position of a body part in space |
| muscle spindle | receptor parallel to the muscle that respond to a stretch |
| golgi tendon organ | propriocepters that respond to increased muscle tensions (more towards end of the muscle group) |
| reflexes | consistent automatic responses to stimuli |
| patella reflex | doctor hit knee w/ hammer/ knee moves up --> unconscious involuntary/ signal not make it up all way to brain --> stimulate sensory cells/ send motor command to motor nerve |
| Ballistic movement | executed as a whole w/ little to no feedback correction |
| Central pattern generators | are neutral mechanisms in the spinal cord that generate rhythmic patterns of motor output (walking/ after while stop thinking abt it) |
| Motor programs | fixed sequences of movements (tying a shoe) |
| primary motor cortex (M1) | in frontal lobe contains the alpha motor neurons responsible for sending motor commands to neuromuscular junctions |
| posterior parietal cortex (PPC) | interfaces w/ somtosensory/ visual regions/ play a role in motor planning (intention) |
| premotor cortex (PMC) | region that send commands to primary motor cortex for movement output/ involved in motor planning |
| supplementary motor area (SMA) | involved in motor imagery/ movement sequencing |
| pre-frontal cortex (PFC) | plans/ calculates outcomes of movements |
| M1 (and neighboring regions) | topographically organized in the cerebral cortex clustered w/ respect to groups of movement |
| Cerebellum | structure involved in motor control/ balance - enhances motor programs/ skills - process info abt guiding movements/ NOT movement itself |
| Efference copy | copy of motor command/ also send to other parts of brain to process what's happening |
| basal ganglia | deep brain structures that store sensory info to guide movements, learn rules, organize sequences of movement into a smooth automatic whole - active in selection or inhibiton of movements |
| Caudate/ putamen (dorsal striatum) | in front- intergrates info/ motor state from cortex |
| Globus pallidus | receives outputs from dorsal striatum/ relays to motor regions |
| Parkinson's disease (hypokinetic) | neurodegenerative disorder that affect motor system of CNS - characterized by shaking (tremor)/ loose of dopaminergic cells |
| substantia nigra (hypokinetic) | does NOT produce enough dopamine |
| levadopa (I-DOPA) (hypokinetic) | a dopamine agonist, is most common/ effective medical treatment for PD |
| Huntington's disease (hyperkinetic) | inherited (autosomal dominant) disorder that leads to the death of brain cells/ jerky, uncontrollable movements |
| Abnormal protein (mHTT) | leads to cell death/ principally in the straitum |
| Essential tremor (ET) | movement disorder, involving a tremor of the hands/ forearms ablations of the thalamus lead to remediated symptoms |
| Thalidotomy | destruction of the functional part of the thalamus |
| retinex theory | cortex compares info from various parts of retina to determine brightness/ color for each area |
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lils33
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