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PSYC: Exam 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Psychology | The study of behavior and mental processes |
| Behavior | everything we do that can be directly observed |
| Mental Processes | thoughts/feeling that can't be observe |
| Critical Thinking | Thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence |
| Structuralism Founder | Wilhelm Wundt |
| Structualism | focuses on identifying the elemental parts of the human mind. "The What?" |
| Introspection | look inside |
| Functionalism Founder | William James |
| Functionalism | Focuses on the functions of the mind and its behaviors. "The Why?" |
| Goals of Psychology (4) | 1. Describe 2. Explain 3. Predict 4. Control |
| The Seven Approaches of Psychology or the BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACHES | 1. Biological 2. Behavioral 3. Psychodynamic 4. Humanistic 5. Cognitive 6. Evolutionary 7. Sociocultural |
| Biological Approach | Focus on the body, the nervous system and the brain. |
| Behavioral Approach | Focus on an organism's visible behaviors |
| Behavioral Founders | John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner |
| Psychodynamic Approach | Focus of unconscious thoughts and biological drives, such as sex, societal demands, and early childhood family experiences |
| Psychodynamic Founder | Sigmund Freud |
| Humanistic Approach | Focus on a person's positive qualities and the capacity for positive growth |
| Cognitive Approach | Focus on the mental process. How we divide our attention, perceive, memory, thinking, and problem solving. |
| Evolutionary Approach | Focus on adaptations, reproduction, and natural selection for the basis of human behavior |
| Sociocultural Approach | Focus on the influences of social and cultural environments on behavior. |
| Correlational Research | Two variables that change together. Although correlation doesn't mean causation. |
| Variable | anything that can change |
| Theory | a broad set of ideas that attempt to explain an observation. |
| Hypothesis | a testable prediction that derives logically from a theory |
| Operational definition | an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured |
| Three types of Research | 1. Descriptive 2. Correlational 3. Experimental |
| Descriptive Research | to research the basic dimensions of a variable Describes a phenomenon |
| Correlational Resesarch | to research the relationship between variables |
| Experimental Research | to establish a casual relationship between variable |
| Case Study | an in-depth look at a single individual |
| Longitudinal Design | Observing/measuring the same variable over a long period of time |
| Random Assignment | reaseachers assign groups by chance. |
| Experiment | a regulated procedure in which a researcher manipulates one or more variables that would influence another |
| Independent Variable | manipulated experimental factor |
| Confederate | A person that plays a role so that the social context can be manipulated |
| Dependent Variable | the outcome/change in response |
| Experiment Group | a group of participants that receives the change |
| Control Group | A different group that doesn't receive the change but are studied as the comparison |
| Within-Participant Designs | all participants take part in every condition |
| Quasi-Experimental Designs | an experimental that would be impossible to do or unethical |
| Validity | The soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment |
| External Validity | Refers to the degree to which an experimental design really reflects in the real-world |
| Internal Validity | the degree of confidence that the causal relationship you are testing is not influenced by other factors or variables |
| Demand Characteristic | Any aspects of a study that communicate to the participants how the experimenter wants them to behave. |
| Experimenter Bias | the unintentional influence of the experimenter's expectations on the outcome of a study |
| Research Participant Bias | The behavior of a research participants during the experiment is influenced by how they think they are suppose to act |
| Placebo Effect | Participant's expectation produce an outcome |
| Double-Blind Experiment | Neither the experimenter nor the participant are aware who is in the control or experimental group until results are concluded |
| IRB | review board for college experiments |
| APA | Review board that prevents participants from harm |
| Cognition | how information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing. |
| Thinking | involves manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving, problems, making decisions, and reflecting. |
| Concepts | mental categories that group things |
| Formal Concepts | have formal rules |
| Natural Concepts | No formals rules (what is a chair) |
| Prototype | Made up concepts, simple |
| Exemplar | Specific examples |
| Problem Solving | finding the appropriate way to attain a goal |
| Stages of Problem Solving | 1. Define the problem and problem space 2. Develop problem solving strategies 3. Evaluate solutions 4. Rethink and redefine problems |
| Poorly Defined Problem Spaces | a problem doesn't define the confines |
| Functional Fixedness | failure to see other routes |
| Mental Set | Trying to solve a new problem with an old solution |
| Reasoning | mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusion |
| Inductive Reasoning | reasoning from S observations to make generalizations |
| Deductive Reasoning | reasoning from generalizations to make a S |
| Decision Making | evaluating alternative solution, the choosing one |
| Judgement | a probably estimation of an event (cognitive) |
| System 1 | fast, automatic, and inuitive |
| System 2 | slow, effortful, and analytic |
| Loss Aversion | the tendency to avoid loss to acquiring gaines |
| Confirmation Bias | to search for info that supports your thoughts |
| Hindsight Bias | to report info falsely, after the fact, that you were right |
| Availability Heuristic | a prediction about the probability of an event by recalling similar events |
| Base Rate Neglect | to ignore info about general info in favor of specific info |
| Representative Heuristics | to make judgement based on appearance (visual sterotypes) |
| Critical Thinking | reflectively and productively evaluating the evidence |
| Mindfulness | Being alert and present |
| Open-minded | being receptive to different perspectives |
| Divergent thinking | Produce many solutions to a problem |
| Convergent thinking | produce the single best solution to a problem |
| Intelligence | all-purpose ability to preform cognitive tasks, solve problems, and learn |
| Charles Spear defined ___ | "g" or the general ability |
| Validity | the extent of what a test measures |
| Reliability | a test gives consistent, and reproducible results |
| Standardization | develop performance standards for a test |
| Alfred Binet did what? | develop the first intelligence test, based on the mental abilites of an age group |
| William Stern did what? | took Binet's idea and added formula and IQ. (mental age/actually age) x 100 = IQ |
| Army Alpha/Beta tests | determine who fought or planned |
| Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale | Identify memory, comprehension, and reasoning |
| Standardized Scale | 100 IQ is average |
| Heritablility | the extent of observable differences among people that can explained by genetic differences |
| Gifted | high intelligence, well adjusted |
| Theories of Multiple Intelligences | Analytic Intelligence Practical Intelligence Creative Intelligence |
| Infinite Genrativity | The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences |
| Five Rule System | Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics |
| Phonology | a language's sound system |
| Morphology | a language's rules for word formation |
| Syntax | Rules for sentences |
| Semantics | the meaning of words |
| Pragmatics | the characters/to communicate even more than what's said |
| Memory | the retention of information over time |
| Encoding | gathering info into memory |
| What does encoding depend on? | attention |
| Storage | holds information |
| What does storage depend on? | Consolidation |
| Consolidation | the process where our brains convert short-term memories into long-term ones |
| Retrieval | getting info out of memory |
| What does retrieval depend on? | persistences & cues |
| Divided Attention | Concentration is on multiple things |
| Sustained Attention (vigilance) | Maintaining attention over a period of time |
| Executive Attention | similar to selective attention but requires higher-level cognitive functioning |
| Processing | taking info from shallow to intermediate to deep thought |
| Automatic Processing | info is put into memory without a thought |
| Effortful Processing | Consciously working to memorize |
| Elaboration | formation of connections of stimuli |
| Imagery | a mental visualization |
| Iconic Sensory Memory | visual info < 1 sec |
| Echoic Sensory Memory | Auditory info < 2 sec |
| Phonological/Articulatory loop | stores verbal info in working memory |
| Visual-spatial Scratch pad | stores visual info in working memory |
| Central Executive | Plans what stays and goes in working memory |
| Working Memory | Capacity: 7+-2 Duration= 20-30 sec |
| Long-term Memory | Limitless |
| Explicit Memory | Specific facts |
| Episodic Memory (under explicit) | autobiographical memories |
| Semantic Memory (under explicit) | a person's knowledge about the world |
| Implicit Memory | unintentional remembering affected by prior experiences |
| Procedural Memory (under implicit) | memory for skills |
| Schemas | a preexisting model that organizes new concepts |
| Connectionism (PDP) | theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connection with neurons. |
| Serial Position Effect | the tendency to recall things at the beginning and end rather than the middle |
| Primacy Effect | tend to recall at the beginning of the list |
| Recency Effect | Tend to recall at the end of the list |
| Recall | memory task to retrieve previously learned info |
| Recognition | memory task to identify information |
| Encoding Specificity | Memory is best when info at encoding is also present The context, mood, and state |
| Reconstruction Errors | memory includes information from schema rather than actual events |
| Self-Reference effect | remembering things related to yourself better than anything else |
| Infantile Amnesia | dont connect time and place, just the event |
| Telescoping Effect | the disconnect between the participants guess and the actual time |
| Flashbulb Memory | where were you memories. NOT MORE ACCURATE THAN OTHER MEMORIES |
| Encoding Failure | unable to encode the information |
| Retrieval Failure | unable to retrieve info from memory |
| Interference | other information getting in the way |
| Proactive Interference | Old info gets in the way of new info |
| Retroactive Interference | New info gets in the way of old info |
| Decay | neurochemicals slowly degrades memories |
| Time-Based Prospective Memories | I will run in a hour |
| Event-Based Prospective Memories | I will leave when my computer dies |
| Learning | relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience |
| Learning is NOT: | an instinct or maturation |
| Associative Learning | Making a connection between 2 events |
| Classical Conditioning | learning to associate the anticipation of the future. a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response |
| Operant Conditioning | learning to associate the consequences |
| Observational Learning | observing behavior then imitating it |
| Ivan Pavlov | tested the salivation of dogs due to a tone |
| Edwin Twitmeyer | tested the anticipation of the reaction of the knee |
| Unconditional Stimuli | stimulus that elicits a natural response |
| Neutral Stimuli | a stimulus that elicits no response |
| Conditioned Stimuli | a stimulus that elicits a learned response |
| Unconditional Response | natural response to stimuli |
| Conditional Response | Response that occurs after learning |
| Trace (forward) Conditioning | Unconditioned stim after the conditioned stim |
| Delayed Conditoning | Conditioned stim = (applied prior) Unconditioned stim |
| Simultaneous Conditioning | Conditioned stim = Unconditioned stim |
| Backward Conditioning | Conditioned Stim then Unconditioned stim |
| Generalization | response is generated by exposure to a similar stim |
| Discrimination | response occurs only to specific stimuli |
| Extinction | previously learned responses disappear |
| Reconditioning | an extinguished response can be relearned quickly |
| Spontaneous Recovery | an extinguished response reappears, PTSD |
| Counterconditoing | can break the association between the stimuli and feelings towards it |
| Aversive conditioning | repeated pairing between a stimulus and a very unpleasant stimulus |
| Stimulus-Response Compatibility | some stimuli and response go better together than others |
| Taste Aversion | one trial learning |
| Habituation | decrease in responsiveness after repeated use |
| John Watson did what? | Founded behaviorism, and popularized celebrity advertising |
| Where is executive control in the brain? | Prefrontal Cortex |
| Where is memory formation in the brain? | Hippocampus, cerebellum, and amygdala |
| Where is memory function in the brain? | temporal lobe |
| B.F. Skinner did what? | developed operant conditioning |
| Edwin Thorndike did what? | developed the Law of Effects |
| Law of Effect | The outcome of behavior determines its likelihood of being repeated |
| Reinforcement | anything that increases behavior |
| Primary Reinforcement | innate reward (food or water) |
| Secondary Reinforcement | learned reward (money) |
| Punishment | anything that decreases behavior |
| Positive Stimuli | stimulus is added to change behavior |
| Negative Stimuli | stimulus is removed to change behavior |
| Special Cases of Negative Reinforcement | 1. Escape Learning 2. Avoidance Learning |
| Learned Helpness | exposed to uncontrolled stimuli and learned that you have no control over the negative outcome |
| Stimulus Control | one stimulus (discriminative) indicates when reinforcement (or punishment) is more likely |
| Shaping | rewarding successive approximations to get a desired one |
| Chaining | taking all of the shapes and stringing them |
| Continuous Schedule | behavior is reinforced everytime |
| Partial Schedule | behavior is reinforced only some time. |
| Fixed-Ratio Schedule | reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors (work goal) |
| Variable-Ration Schedule | behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on a unpredictable basis (gambling) |
| Fixed-Interval Schedule | Reinforces the first behaviors after a fixed amount of time has passed (due date encourages students to hurry) |
| Variable-Interval Schedule | behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time (fishing) |
| Applied Behavior Analysis | the use of operant conditioning principles to change behaviors. |
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Zhowe0
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