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AS Research Methods
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Quantitative Data | Information in the form of numbers |
| Qualitative Data | Information which is not in the form of numbers; e.g. in text |
| Correlational Analysis | A test of the relationship between two continuous variables, usually plotted on a scattergram |
| Observation | Research which involves directly recording the behaviour of participants (can be natural/controlled, participant/non-participant, and overt/covert) |
| Self-Report Techniques | Research methods whereby the participants provide the information about themselves |
| Questionnaire | Self-report method where participants are given a written set of questions to answer |
| Open question | Where the person responding has freedom over what to say - their choices are not restricted |
| Closed question | Forced-choice questions with limited number of options |
| Interview | Self-report method where participants are usually asked questions face:face |
| Structured interview | Interviews which follow a set list of questions, with no follow-up questions |
| Unstructured interview | Interviews with a theme and topic, but no set questions that allow for elaboration and discussion |
| Case Study | An in-depth analysis of one person or a small group of people |
| Aims | What the research intends to discover |
| Hypothesis | A testable statement - you must operationalise the variables within it |
| Directional Hypothesis | AKA 'one-tailed': A testable statement which predicts that there will be a difference/correlation and can state the direction |
| Non Directional Hypothesis | AKA 'two-tailed': A testable statement which predicts that there will be a difference/correlation but does not state the direction |
| Null hypothesis | A testable statement which predicts that there will be no difference/correlation |
| Independent Groups design | Experimental design where participants take part in only one level of the IV |
| Repeated Measures design | Experimental design where participants take part in all levels of the IV |
| Matched Pairs design | Experimental design where participants take part in only one level of the IV, but are paired with another participant with similar characteristics before being separated into their conditions |
| Operationalisation | Making variables specific and measurable ('IQ' instead of 'intelligence') |
| Independent Variable (IV) | The difference between conditions (i.e. what you change) |
| Dependant Variable (DV) | What the researcher measures |
| Pilot Study | A small-scale test carried out before the main study to identify and solve any issues or to make specific decisions |
| Extraneous Variables (EV) | Something which has an impact on the DV, which is not the IV |
| Participant Variables | Differences between the people taking part in the study which act as Extraneous variables |
| Situational Variables | Differences between the environments of each condition in the study which act as Extraneous variables |
| Reliability | How consistent the study or test is |
| Inter-rater reliability | The extent to which different assessors would score the participants in the same way |
| Test-retest reliability | The extent to which the study could be repeated in the same way with the same results |
| Internal Validity | The extent to which the study measures what it claims to measure |
| Generalisability | The extent to which the findings can be used beyond the study, in different places with different people |
| Population Validity | The extent to which the sample can be generalised to the target population |
| Ecological Validity | The extent to which the study can be generalised to realistic settings |
| Historical Validity | The extent to which the study can be generalised to modern times |
| Face Validity | Does the test actually measure what it intends to? |
| Mundane realism | Whether or not the experiment reflects reality and what someone would be asked to do in everyday life |
| Representativeness | The extent to which the sample contains a large variety of the population and can be generalised to the target population |
| Deception | Ethical issue - Lying to participants |
| Informed Consent | Ethical issue - getting permission from your participants to take part |
| Protection of Participants | Ethical issue - must ensure participants suffer no damage from the study |
| Right to Withdraw | Ethical issue - participants are allowed to leave at any point |
| Debrief | Ethical issue - participants must be told the aim and details of the study at the end |
| Sampling Techniques | Ways in which researchers gather participants |
| Target Population | The group of people who need to be represented by a good sample |
| Random Sample | Sampling method - each person has an equal chance of taking part |
| Opportunity Sample | Sampling method - the people who are in the right place at the right time |
| Volunteer Sample | Sampling method - place an advertisement and use the people who select themselves |
| Demand Characteristics | Changes in the participant behaviour due to taking part in the study |
| Investigator Effects | When the researcher has an impact on the outcome |
| Counterbalancing | A method for reducing order effects by ensuring different groups participate in conditions in different orders |
| Order effects | Taking part in one condition affects performance in another condition |
| Practice effects | When you get better in the second condition due to taking part in the first |
| Fatigue effects | When you get worse in the second condition due to taking part in the first |
| Random Allocation/Randomisation | Reducing bias by placing participants in conditions indiscriminately - e.g. by picking names out of a hat |
| Standardisation | Ensuring that the controlled variables are the same each time - e.g. giving recorded or typed instructions to participants |
| Scattergram | A method of representing correlational data in a visual form |
| Histogram | A method of representing a test of difference where the IV is on a continuous scale (e.g. height) |
| Bar chart | A method of representing a test of difference where the IV is NOT on a continuous scale (e.g. With music/Without music) |
| Measures of Central Tendency | Averages |
| Mean | Adding up all scores and dividing by how many scores there are |
| Median | The middle value |
| Mode | The most common value |
| Measures of Dispersion | Ways of seeing how spread out the data is |
| Range | The highest value - the lowest value + 1 |
| Standard Deviation | A measure of how spread out the data are, by finding the average difference from the mean |
| Positive Correlation | As one variable increases, so does the other |
| Negative Correlation | As one variable increases, the other decreases |
| Laboratory experiment | A study where the researcher manipulates the IV, carried out in a controlled and artificial setting |
| Field experiment | A study where the researcher manipulates the IV, carried out in a realistic setting |
| Strengths of lab experiments | High internal validity and reliability due to control. Generally ethical as it offers informed consent and right to withdraw |
| Weaknesses of lab experiments | Low in ecological validity due to artificial setting |
| Strengths of field experiments | High in ecological validity due to realistic setting. Reasonably high in reliability due to manipulation of variables |
| Weaknesses of field experiments | Likely to be unethical due to lack of informed consent and right to withdraw. Higher risk of extraneous variables than lab due to realistic setting |
| Overt observation | Where the participants are aware that they are being watched and analysed |
| Covert observation | Where the participants do not know they are being watched |
| Participant observation | Where the person watching the participants also takes part in the behaviour they are observing |
| Non-participant observation | Where the person watching the participants does not take part in the behaviour they are watching |
| Structured observation | Where the observer has a pre-determined checklist to record their observations |
| Unstructured observation | Where the observer does not have a pre-determined checklist and records the behaviour freely |
| Naturalistic observation | Where the observer watches the freely-occurring behaviour of the participants without manipulating the IV |
| Controlled observation | Where the observer manipulates the IV within the setting where they are observing behaviour |
| Strengths of observations | Able to see ppts actual behaviour rather than relying on self-report. Covert is likely to be their truest behaviour. |
| Weaknesses of observations | Ppts may show demand characteristics unless it is covert, but then it becomes unethical due to lack of informed consent. |
| Strengths of correlational analysis | Able to study variables that would be unethical or impractical to manipulate experimentally (e.g. unhealthy behaviour) |
| Weaknesses of correlational analysis | We cannot infer causality - i.e. we cannot be sure that one variable has an effect on the other |
| Strengths of quantitative data | Makes data analysis easier and more reliable so comparisons can be made more objectively |
| Weaknesses of quantitative data | Cannot give detailed or nuanced information to understand the reasons behind findings |
| Strengths of qualitative data | Gives the chance for detailed and nuanced information to help the researcher understand reasons behind findings |
| Weaknesses of qualitative data | Makes it difficult to analyse data objectively or make comparisons between conditions reliably |
Created by:
SamBlakeley
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