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Paper 2 Complete -12
All terms and studies that could appear on EOY12 Paper 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Wundt (not a study) | Came up with the technique of introspection as a standardised method of investigating one's conscious experience of a stimulus (like a metronome) |
| Skinner | Taught rats/pigeons etc new behaviours by using food as rewards for given behaviours (such as pressing a lever) in controlled environment known as the Skinner box. |
| Pavlov | Paired the ringing of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimuli) to create salivation (conditioned response) at the ringing of a bell in the future (conditioned stimulus) |
| Watson and Raynor | Taught an infant (Little Albert) to develop a phobia of fluffy items by pairing these items with loud noises |
| Gilroy et al | Three sessions of systematic desensitisation compared to relaxation techniques (control). Symptoms lower in SD group after 3 and 33 months. |
| Bandura et al | Developed SLT when he found that children who had seen an adult model behaving aggressively to a model were more likely to be aggressive to the model themselves |
| Bandura and Walters | Children observed consequences for a model being aggressive to a doll– praised, punished or no consequence. Praised model most likely to be imitated. |
| March et al | CBT is effective at treating depression in 81% of the time. |
| Darwin | Explains evolution and the role of natural selection |
| Soomro et al | SSRIs are 70%+ effective for OCD |
| Freud (not a study) | Developed the Psychodynamic approach, including the psychosexual stages and his iceberg theory of the psyche, containing the id, ego and superego |
| Freud | Little Hans case study. Little Hans had a phobia of horses that Freud explained as displaced feelings from castration anxiety from his father. |
| De Maat et al. | Reviewed therapies for mental health disorders. Found psychoanalysis to be effective for many conditions |
| Fischer and Greenburg | Conducted a systematic review of research. Found 2500+ studies that support elements of Freuds theory such as the unconscious and the use of defence mechanisms. |
| Maslow (not a study) | Developed the hierarchy of needs, which is a key element of Humanistic psychology |
| Rogers (not a study) | Developed client centred therapy (CCT) as a non-directive therapy to boost self-esteem and help people achieve congruence and self-actualisation. |
| Introspection | People trained to systematically analyse one’s own conscious experience. Experiences are analysed in terms of their component parts (or structures), thoughts, images and sensations. Developed by Wundt. |
| Structuralism | Attempting to isolate the structure of consciousness. |
| Behavioural approach | Believes that all behaviour is learnt and that we are born as a blank slate. Only concerned with observable behaviour that can be measured (not internal processes). Controlled lab studies used to remove bias and maintain objectivity. |
| Classical conditioning | This is a behaviourist theory which says that humans and animals learn new behaviours by the process of association. |
| Association | When two stimuli are paired together at the same time, they become linked |
| Stimulus | Something in the environment that may or may not result in a response |
| Response | A reaction to stimuli |
| Generalisation | When a similar stimulus to the learnt stimulus elicits the same response (e.g. bitten by an Alsatian now afraid of all dogs). |
| Extinction | When a conditioned pairing decays over time. Conditioned stimuli aren't permanent unless they are occasionally paired with the UCS. |
| Neutral stimulus (NS) | Something in the environment that elicits no innate response, e.g. ring of a bell |
| Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | Something in the environment that elicits a response that does not need to be learnt, e.g. food |
| Unconditioned response (UCR) | An innate reaction to an unconditioned stimulus, e.g. salivation when encountering food |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | Something in the environment that elicits a response that needs to be learnt |
| Conditioned response (CR) | A reaction to a conditioned stimulus |
| Operant conditioning | A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment. |
| Positive reinforcement | A pleasant consequence to a behaviour that increases the likelihood of repeating that behaviour |
| Negative reinforcement | Any behaviour that leads to an escape from an unpleasant situation will increase the likelihood of repeating that behaviour. |
| Punishment | A negative consequence to a behaviour that decreases the likelihood of repeating that behaviour. |
| Social Learning Theory | Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of role models within a social context. |
| Identification | When a model is high status, likeable, attractive and similar to a person (e.g. age and gender) the model is more likely to be imitated. |
| Modelling | Demonstrating the behaviour to be copied |
| Mediational processes | Cognitive factors (thoughts) that come between stimulus and response and determine the likelihood that observed behaviours will be repeated. These include attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation. |
| Attention | Focusing on a behaviour - watching it closely. |
| Retention | Coding the behaviour seen into the observers memory, e.g. is it easy to remember? |
| Motor reproduction/Self-efficacy | The belief that the behaviour observed can be imitated |
| Motivation | Believing the benefits of performing a behaviour outweigh any costs. |
| Vicarious reinforcement | The observed consequences of behaviour for someone else determine the likelihood that it will be repeated, e.g. witnessing someone being praised for behaviour increases the chance the observer imitates it. |
| Cognitive Approach | Focuses on how our internal mental processes are responsible for our behaviour. The approach believes we can and should study internal mental processes scientifically. |
| Inferences | Making assumptions made about internal mental processes which can't be observed. These assumptions use and go beyond the behaviour seen within research. |
| Schema | Packages of information / units of knowledge developed through experience. They provide a mental framework for us to interpret information. They become more detailed and sophisticated as we age (assimilation & accommodation). |
| Computer analogy | Processing of information in humans is similar (analogous) to the way a computer works, concepts from computing such as coding, retrieval and storage can be used to explain internal mental processes. |
| Theoretical model | Diagrams / pictorial representations used to explain how the mind works (e.g. the multi store model of memory is a diagram of stores), which allow psychologists to construct hypotheses |
| Cognitive neuroscience | Brain scans used to scientifically study of the influence of brain structures on cognitive processes, e.g. fMRIs show a link for lateral frontal lobes and OCD. |
| Biological Approach | Everything psychological has a biological basis, such as genes, brain structure and neurochemistry. The mind and body are one and the same - the mind lives in the brain, therefore all thoughts have a physical basis. |
| Genetic influence of behaviour | Psychological characteristics are inherited, so specific genes are implicated in disorders, e.g. COMT in OCD and SZ. |
| Genotype | The genetic makeup of an individual / Particular set of genes that a person possesses |
| Phenotype | Characteristics of an individual determined by an interaction between genes and the environment |
| Concordance rates | The likelihood that if one person has a trait, someone else (e.g. their twin) also has the same trait. A test of phenotypal similarity between individuals, based on genotypal similarity. |
| Evolutionary theory | Genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction is naturally selected for, Darwin (1859). Such genes are adaptive. |
| Neurochemistry | Chemicals in the brain that can affect thinking and behaviours. Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters and hormones can affect mood. E.g. Low serotonin is linked to depression. |
| Twin studies | Scientists can compare the concordance rates of MZ and DZ twins in order to determine the extent of genetic influence of a particular trait. |
| Psychodynamic Approach | Believes that behaviour is influenced by our unconscious mind. This is a storehouse of our repressed memories, instincts and biological drives. |
| Unconscious mind | A storehouse of repressed memories, innate drives and instincts. The part of our psyche of which we are unaware and is difficult to access. A key part in determining our behaviour. |
| Preconscious | What we are not currently conscious of but could become aware of, e.g. recent memory. |
| Conscious mind | What we are aware of |
| Tripartite structure of personality | Claims that our psyche is made up of a dynamic interaction between id, ego and superego |
| Id | Part of the personality we are born with. It operates on the pleasure principle, demanding instant gratification. |
| Ego | Works on the reality principle. This aspect of the mind mediates between the id and superego and employs defence mechanisms. Develops around 5 years. |
| Superego | Internalised sense of right and wrong, based on the morality principle. Punishes the ego through guilt. Develops around 3 years. |
| Defence mechanism | Unconscious strategies such as repression, denial and displacement used to reduce anxiety. |
| Denial | A defence mechanism: The rejection of a particular aspect of reality |
| Displacement | A defence mechanism: When we transfer our true feelings from the original source to a substitute target |
| Repression | A defence mechanism: When memories are forced into our unconscious, usually due to their traumatic nature |
| Psychosexual stages (overview) | Freud claimed child development occurred in five developmental phases. Each stage is marked by a different conflict the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage. Any unresolved psychosexual conflict leads to fixation. |
| The psychosexual stages: Oral | 0-1 years old, pleasure focus is the mouth, consequence of unresolved conflict is an oral fixation - smoking, biting nails etc |
| The psychosexual stages: Anal | 1-3 yrs, focus of pleasure is the anus from withholding or expelling faeces, consequence of unresolved conflict is anal retentive or anal expulsive personality; |
| The psychosexual stages: Phallic | 3-6 years, focus of pleasure is the genital areas. Consequence of unresolved conflict is a phallic personality - narcissistic and reckless. |
| The psychosexual stages: latency | 6-12 year, earlier conflicts are repressed |
| The psychosexual stages: Genital | Sexual desires become conscious alongside onset of puberty. Consequences of unresolved conflict is difficulty forming heterosexual relationships. |
| Psychoanalysis | A form of treatment developed from the Psychodynamic approach which aims to study the unconscious mind |
| Humanistic Approach | Approach that views mental health to be related to free will and self-determination |
| Free will | The notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external factors. |
| Self-actualisation | The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one's full potential - becoming what you are capable of |
| Concept of the self | The self refers to ideas and concepts that constitute what 'I' am |
| Unconditional positive regard | A technique used by Humanistic therapists, whereby they respect the patient's choices and right to self-determination. A lack of self-worth and value has its roots in a lack of unconditional positive regard (or unconditional love) in childhood |
| Client centred therapy | The Humanistic approach to treatment - focus is on the patient, and a sense of warmth and understanding |
| Maslow's hierarchy of needs | A five-levelled structure in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological (growth) needs, such as self-actualisation, can be achieved. |
| Congruence | When a person's ideal self broadly matches up to their perceived self It is the aim of Rogerian therapy. |
| Conditions of worth | When a person has a perception that parents set of boundaries of love - the child is taught to believe that they are only worthy of love under specific circumstances, e.g. "I will only love you if… you study medicine." |
| Levels of the independent variable | The different conditions in the experiment |
| Objectivity | Remaining impartial and not biased |
| Replicability | When an experiment or investigation can be repeated multiple times (and by others) with the same findings |
| Empiricism | Gathering actual evidence for the theory |
| Falsifiability | Being able to give a scenario in which the theory could be proved wrong |
| Hypothesis testing | Creating a clear testable statement and then comparing it to experiment |
| Theory construction | Creating a general explanation or model for a specific phenomenon which can be tested |
| Paradigm | A set of assumptions shared by the majority of people in a scientific field |
| Paradigm shift | A significant change to the agreed upon set of assumptions, such as the finding that the Earth orbits the sun rather than the other way around |
| Quantitative Data | Information in the form of numbers |
| Qualitative Data | Information which is not in the form of numbers; e.g. in text |
| Quasi experiment | A study involving an independent variable which has already occurred, where the IV is a characteristic |
| Laboratory Experiment | A controlled study carried out in an artificial setting |
| Field Experiment | A controlled study carried out in a natural setting |
| Natural Experiment | A study involving an independent variable which has already occurred, where the IV is an experience |
| Correlational Analysis | A test of the relationship between two continuous variables, usually plotted on a scattergram |
| Observation | Research which involves directly recording the behaviour of participants (can be natural/controlled, participant/non-participant, and overt/covert) |
| Self-Report Techniques | Research methods whereby the participants provide the information about themselves |
| Questionnaire | Self-report method where participants are given a written set of questions to answer |
| Open question | Where the person responding has freedom over what to say - their choices are not restricted |
| Closed question | Forced-choice questions with limited number of options |
| Interview | Self-report method where participants are usually asked questions face:face |
| Structured interview | Interviews which follow a set list of questions, with no follow-up questions |
| Unstructured interview | Interviews with a theme and topic, but no set questions that allow for elaboration and discussion |
| Case Study | An in-depth analysis of one person or a small group of people |
| Aims | What the research intends to discover |
| Hypothesis | A testable statement - you must operationalise the variables within it |
| Directional Hypothesis | AKA 'one-tailed': A testable statement which predicts that there will be a difference/correlation and can state the direction |
| Non Directional Hypothesis | AKA 'two-tailed': A testable statement which predicts that there will be a difference/correlation but does not state the direction |
| Null hypothesis | A testable statement which predicts that there will be no difference/correlation |
| Independent Groups | Experimental design where participants take part in only one level of the IV |
| Repeated Measures | Experimental design where participants take part in all levels of the IV |
| Matched Pairs | Experimental design where participants take part in only one level of the IV, but are paired with another participant with similar characteristics before being separated into their conditions |
| Behavioural Categories | Coding units used in an observation or content analysis - what the researchers are going to tally |
| Operationalisation | Making variables specific and measurable |
| Independent Variable (IV) | The difference between conditions (what you change) |
| Dependant Variable (DV) | What the researcher measures |
| Pilot Study | A small-scale test carried out before the main study to identify and solve any issues or to make specific decisions |
| Extraneous Variables (EV) | Something has an impact on the DV, which is not the IV |
| Confounding Variables | A third variable which explains a correlation - it changes proportionally with the two other variables |
| Control Variable | A factor that researchers ensure is the same in all conditions to make the study replicable and to avoid extraneous variables |
| Participant Variables | Differences between the people taking part in the study which act as Extraneous variables |
| Situational Variables | Differences between the environments of each condition in the study which act as Extraneous variables |
| Social Desirability Bias | Where participants change their behaviour or answer to make themselves look better |
| Reliability | How consistent the study is |
| Inter-rater reliability | The extent to which different assessors would score the participants in the same way |
| Test-retest reliability | The extent to which the study could be repeated in the same way with the same results |
| Internal Validity | The extent to which the study measures what it claims to measure |
| External Validity | The extent to which the findings can be generalised beyond the study |
| Population Validity | The extent to which the sample can be generalised to the target population |
| Ecological Validity | The extent to which the study can be generalised to realistic settings |
| Temporal/Historical Validity | The extent to which the study can be generalised to modern times |
| Concurrent validity | Whether or not the measure of the IV agrees with a more established measure - e.g. does a person's score correlate with their score on a widely-accepted valid test? |
| Face validity | Whether the measure of the IV seems accurate - usually volunteers are asked to rate its internal validity |
| BPS Code of Ethics | The official guide to ethical issues in Psychology |
| Deception | Ethical issue - Lying to participants |
| Informed Consent | Ethical issue - getting permission from your participants to take part |
| Protection of Participants | Ethical issue - must ensure participants suffer no damage from the study |
| Right to Withdraw | Ethical issue - participants are allowed to leave at any point |
| Debrief | Ethical issue - participants must be told the aim and details of the study at the end |
| Sampling Techniques | Ways in which researchers gather participants |
| Target Population | The group of people who need to be represented by a good sample |
| Random Sample | Sampling method - each person has an equal chance of taking part |
| Opportunity Sample | Sampling method - the people who are in the right place at the right time |
| Stratified Sample | Sampling method - the demographics of the population are reflected in the sample |
| Systematic Sample | Sampling method - list the group and pick every nth person |
| Volunteer Sample | Sampling method - place an advertisement and use the people who select themselves |
| Demand Characteristics | Changes in the participant behaviour due to taking part in the study |
| Investigator Effects | When the researcher has an impact on the outcome |
| Counterbalancing | A method for reducing order effects by ensuring different groups participate in conditions in different orders |
| Order effects | Taking part in one condition affects performance in another condition |
| Practice effects | When you get better in the second condition due to taking part in the first |
| Fatigue effects | When you get worse in the second condition due to taking part in the first |
| Random Allocation | Reducing bias by placing participants in conditions indiscriminately - e.g. by picking names out of a hat |
| Standardisation | Ensuring that the controlled variables are the same in each condition of an experiment - e.g. giving recorded or typed instructions to participants |
| Scattergram | A method of representing correlational data in a visual form |
| Histogram | A method of representing a test of difference where the IV is on a continuous scale (e.g. height) |
| Bar chart | A method of representing a test of difference where the IV is NOT on a continuous scale (e.g. With music/Without music) |
| Measures of Central Tendency | Averages |
| Mean | Adding up all scores and dividing by how many scores there are |
| Median | The middle value |
| Mode | The most common value |
| Measures of Dispersion | Ways of seeing how spread out the data is |
| Range | The highest value - the lowest value |
| Standard Deviation | A measure of how spread out the data are, by finding the average difference from the mean |
| Positive Correlation | As one variable increases, so does the other |
| Negative Correlation | As one variable increases, the other decreases |
| Correlation Coefficients | A measure of the relationship between variables, ranging from -1 to 1. It is the calculated value of a Spearman's rho or Pearson's r test |
| Content Analysis | A method of turning qualitative data into quantitative data by establishing coding units and tallying their occurrence |
| Thematic analysis | When a researcher reviews qualitative data and records recurring patterns or motifs - they do not tally their occurrences however |
| Peer review | A scientific process whereby other scientists check work before it is published |
| Normal distribution | When the mean, median and mode are the same |
| Positively skewed distribution | When the mean is higher than the median and the mode |
| Negatively skewed distribution | When the mean is lower than the median and the mode |
| Abstract | Appears at the beginning of a scientific journal. Summarises the entire study, including aim, method, results and conclusions |
| Introduction | Scientific report section which explains key terms and previous research to justify the current study |
| Method | Scientific report section which outlines the participants, materials and procedure |
| Results | Scientific report section which outlines the raw data from the study, with some descriptive and inferential statistical analysis |
| Discussion | Scientific report section which includes the conclusions and some evaluation of the research, with recommendations for future research |
| References | List of sources used in a scientific report |
| Descriptive statistics | Ways of analysing data that give more information about patterns in the data, e.g. averages, percentages, ratios etc. |
| Level of measurement | Whether the DV is nominal, ordinal or interval |
| Nominal data | Category data without a numeric value (e.g. hair colour) |
| Ordinal data | Level of measurement where there is a scale containing unequal gaps (data may be ranked, subjective or otherwise not equal in gap size) |
| Interval data | Level of measurement where there is a scale containing equal gaps (e.g. height in cm) |
| Inferential statistics | A way of analysing data to determine the likelihood that any difference/correlation is statistically significant |
| Statistical significance | Suggests that results are not due to chance - or it is extremely unlikely they are |
| p Value | The probability that results were due to a chance result. In psychology we accept 5% (or 0.05) |
| Type I error | A false positive - When the alternate hypothesis is accepted incorrectly and the null hypothesis rejected incorrectly |
| Type II error | A false negative - When the alternate hypothesis is rejected incorrectly and the null hypothesis is accepted incorrectly |
| Calculated value | The result of an inferential statistical test |
| Critical value | The number in a data table that you must compare with your calculated value |
| Related design | An experimental design where the participants in one condition are similar to those in another - either repeated measures or matched pairs |
| Unrelated design | Independent groups design - the participants in one condition are not similar or related to those in the other condition |
| Test of difference | A comparison between conditions |
| Test of association | An investigation into a correlation or relationship between co-variables |
Created by:
SBlakeley
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