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Social Psychology
Final
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Aggression: | any intentional action (physical or verbal) aimed at doing harm or causing pain |
| Closest human relatives | Human and chimpanzees share 99% of their DNA |
| Culture and Aggression | Humans are born with the capacity for aggressive behavior, but how we express it is learned and depends on our circumstances and culture close-knit cultures that depended on cooperation for survival, anger, and aggression are considered dangerous |
| Pinke argues that | human violence has been declining over time |
| Cultures of Honor | A culture that emphasizes aggression and vigilance in which even small disputes require aggression responses to restore status Higher rates of domestic violence |
| Gender and Aggression | The number one predictor of violence As adults, men are more likely to engage in spontaneous acts of aggression than women |
| Physical Aggression | Most cases of extreme violence in the family are perpetrated by men Men usually inflict more serious injury than women |
| Relational Aggression | hurting others by sabotaging their reputations and relationships Females are more likely to engage in this type of aggression |
| Catharsis- Does it work? | A release of energy at the center of the belief that some kinds of aggression acts can serve a useful function by “letting off steam” Research shows that physical activity (such as punching a punching bag) neither dissipates anger nor reduces subsequent |
| Freud theorized that aggression is like | pressure building in a container if it is not allowed to escape, it will produce an explosion |
| Retaliation, overkill, and escalation | Once we express aggression, negative feelings towards another person, it becomes much easier to follow up with consistent statements and actions |
| Retaliation is typically more severe | true |
| Causes of aggression | Alcohol: lowers inhibitions and loosens the restrictions on committing negative acts - Disruptive the way we process information and is a major reason for miscommunication between men and women |
| Pain, discomfort, and hunger | If an animal experiences pain and cannot flee the scene, it will almost inevitably attack Humans react in a similar way Hunger and low blood sugar can increase levels of anger and aggression |
| Heat and global warming | 50 riots erupted across the united states in the summer of 1967 Studies have shown that the hotter it is on a given day, the greater likelihood that people will commit violent crimes |
| Rejection, exclusion, and taunting | Social pain regulates in our brain as much the same way as physical pain High school is typically a toxic environment |
| Frustration is the major instigator of aggression Most pronounced when: | The goal is within reach Expectations are high The rule of fairness has been violated Frustration is often noth the result of simple deprivation, it is the result of relative deprivation |
| Relative deprivation: | felt when we see others enjoying a better situation or when we are deprived of something relative to our expectations |
| social -cognitive learning theory | People learn how to behave through cognitive processes, such as their beliefs and perceptions of events Persons who are anonymous and therefore unidentifiable tend to act more aggressively than persons who are not anonymous |
| Violence and the mass media | Most American children are immersed in images of violence through television, movies, video games, pop and rap music, music videos, comic and the internet |
| Studying media violence | Longitudinal studies have found that with exposure to violence in television, movies, and video games, children showed increases in aggressive tendencies and decreases in prosocial behaviors |
| Cause and effect can be difficult to discern | The assumption is that watch violence makes children more violent |
| Unexpected Effects of Media Violence | Desensitization: we become decreasingly distressed by people hurt Once players of a violent video game get in the habit of dehumanizing the “enemy,” that habit can be carried over into how players come to regard real people |
| Hostile attribution bias: | the tendency to to interpret the ambiguous behavior of others in a hostile manner rather than give others the benefit of the doubt |
| The elements of aggression: the can of sexual assault | Motivation for rape varies but is typically a desire to dominate, humiliate or punish victims Sexual violence is more likely to be committed by high status men Can occur as a result of physical force, threatened violence or incapacitation |
| Sexual scripts and the problem of consent | are learned culture expectations of what we should do in social situations Research finds repeatedly that “no” can be as hard to women to say as it is for men to hear |
| Toward the reduction of violence | punishment, mild punishment |
| punishment | Why doesn’t severe punishment reduce violence Distance of the punishing agent leads to compliance not internalization Can lead to frustration, which may further aggression |
| Mild punishment | Applied to hitting your sister you might convince yourself that you no longer enjoy hitting your sister This cognition would be consistent with your behavior and reduce your dissonance |
| Punishing aggressive models | We should feel vicariously punished and therefore we should become less aggressive Public hangings and flogging in the past Death penalty does not decrease homicides |
| Controlled experiments | Less aggression if children saw as aggressive person punished compared to children who saw one reinforced or for whom nothing happened to |
| Rewarding alternatives to aggression | Train workers to ignore aggression and award behavior that is incompatible with aggression Found a decline in aggressive behavior after a few weeks |
| Taking candy from children | Trained (rewarded) groups of children to playing constructively or aggressively, then frustrated them by stopping a promised movie and taking away their candy The presence of parents people in the same circumstances who choose conciliation one retaliatio |
| Building Empathy | The more empathy people have, the harder it is to commit aggressive acts Feshbach Demonstrated a correlation between empathy and aggression |
| Altruism | doing something for others, even at the cost of our own immediate comfort or pleasure |
| Teaching altruism and mindfulness | Studies show that behaving altruistically procedures greater feelings of happiness How we think about events is a crucial intermediate step in determining how we respond |
| Prejudice | Is both fundamental to the human condition and also not very well understood Exists in all culture, perhaps as an evolutionary benefit by making people wary of strangers |
| The cognitive component of prejudice stereotypes | Categorization, stereotype, discrimination |
| Categorization | the grouping of objects or people by key characteristics |
| Stereotype | reflects the belief that a particular attribute is characteristic of the group as a whole, regardless of the actual variation among the group’s members |
| Discrimination | unfair treatment of members of a stigmatized group |
| Identifying unconscious prejudices | Some social scientist believes that a significant number of people continue to be prejudice but are concealing it-even from themselves Measuring implicit biases |
| Implicit bias and behavior | Many people who genuinely regard themselves as being unprejudiced will, under certain conditions , behave in a prejudiced way People are more likely to reveal their prejudices when they are mentally fatigued Another key factor in justifying our biases i |
| Some causes of prejudice | Economic and political competition Displaced aggression Maintenance of status or self-image Conformity to existing social norms |
| Economic and political competition | Data suggest that competition and conflict breed prejudice Often resulting from economic and political forces Prejudice attitudes tend to increase when groups are in conflict over mutually exclusive goals |
| Displaced aggression: the scapegoat theory | Scapegoating: the process of blaming innocent- and powerless others for our trouble Demagogues seek power by exploiting people’s prejudice, fears, and resentment, channeling these feelings onto scapegoat |
| Maintenance | Powerful determinant of prejudice is embedded in our need to justify our behavior and sense of self Several studies have shown that a good predictor of prejudice is whether a person’s social status is low tending |
| Prejudice through social norms | Is driven by conformity to social norms Even casual exposure to prejudice can affect our attitudes and behaviors Can also be fostered through the law and custom of society’s institutions |
| Stereotypes and Attributions | In ambiguous situations, people tend to construct narratives consistent with their prejudice |
| Attributional ambiguity | creates the difficulty that members of minority groups may have in interpreting feedback the receive about their work |
| Self-fulling prophecy | Our stereotypes causes us to act in such a way as to elicit from those others the very characteristics and behaviors we expect |
| Stereotype threat | People who are targets of negative stereotypes can, ironically, and end up confirming them by trying to disconfirm them |
| Blaming the victim | People tend to attribute personal responsibility for any inequitable outcome that otherwise difficult to |
| Reducing prejudice | It is not easily changed by an information campaign The contact hypothesis |
| The contact hypothesis | Get people to encounter real human beings rather than stereotypes, leading to greater mutual understanding and friendship Cross-group |
| Interdependence | a situation in which individuals need one another to succeed in reaching a mutual goal |
| Relationships: | After meeting basic survival needs, our most potent motive id to have meaningful connections with others Many studies confirm the health benefits if relationships that provide support, companionship, and love during both stressful and happy times |
| Liking: What attracts us to others | People want to belong and feel important we want to be liked We like people whose behavior provides us with maximum reward at minimum cost |
| Four consistent factors have a profound influence on our choice of friends and lovers | Those with close proximity, those we think of as similar to us, those who like us, and those who are physically attractive |
| Proximity | Makes it likelier that we will have repeated exposure to them, people become more likable and attractive as they become more familiar People who are geographically nearest ti you are most likely to become dearest to you as well |
| Similarity | People who share attitudes and opinions us with social validation for our beliefs Perceived similarity is enough to increase attraction |
| Personal attributes competence | Being close to competent people is rewarding However, if they are more competent than we are in areas that matter to us and therefore make us feel incompetent and inadequate by companion, their attractiveness will be diminished Pratfall effect |
| Pratfall effect: | a high degree of competence makes us more attractive, but some evidence of fallibility increases our attractiveness become further |
| Physical attractiveness | In a study of long-term relationships, the similarity of the attractiveness of the partners was crucial in determining whether they stay together |
| Being Liked | One of the strongest determination of whether we will like someone is the belief that someone likes us Insecure people will accept anyone who expresses interest Secure people will be more selective Someone who is insecure may even seek out a less attra |
| The paradox of choice | Studies find that the kind of mind-set produced by an abundance of choice leads people to be less happy with the choices they finally make even if by objective standards their choice match what they say they want and need from a relationship or career |
| The Gain-Loss Theory of Attraction | The theory predicts that you will like someone most in a gain situation (where the person begins by disliking you and gradually comes to like you more) and that you will like the person least in a loss situation (where the person begins by liking you and |
| Exchange Relationships | relationships in which the people involved are concerned about reciprocity and making sure that some sort of equity is achieved |
| Communal relationships: | relationships in which neither of the partners is keeping score. Rather a person will be inclined to give in response to the other’s need and will readily receive the same kind of care |
| Love: what is it, and how does it happen? | Passionate love and compassionate love |
| Passionate love | characterized by strong emotions, exhilaration, unquenchable sexual desire, and intense preoccupation with the beloved |
| Compassionate love | a milder, more stable experience marked by feelings of mutual trust, dependability, and warmth (usually deepens overtime) |
| Implicit theories of love | People have differing beliefs about love Implicit theories of love can enhance or hurt our relationships Couples who hold an implicit theory about love as growth put more effort into coping strategies and remain more satisfied over time |
| Attachment Theory | Adult attachments can be secure, anxious, or avoidant |
| Securely Attached | lovers are rarely jealous or worried about being rejected |
| Anxious | lovers are always agitated their relationships |
| avoidant | people distrust and often avoid intimate attachments altogether. They tend to be distant when in a relationship |
| Insecurely attached | individuals are skeptical of genuine compliments and tend to lash out in response to minor transgressions Fear of rejection elevates that chances of actually being rejected |
| The porcupine's dilemma | the desire to achieve deep intimacy while remaining invulnerable to hurt |
| Authenticity | the freedom to share your true feelings and beliefs (even negative ones) with your partner People who support each other in times of need and stress are more likely to have a healthy relationship than people who don’t |
| Gottman identified four destructive forms of communication | Hostile criticism Defensiveness Contempt Stonewalling |
| Hostile criticism | an attack on your partner at the core of their character |
| Defensiveness | When we feel unjustly accused, we fish for excuses and play the innocent victim so that our partner will back off. |
| Contempt | When we communicate in this state, we are truly mean—we treat others with disrespect, mock them with sarcasm, ridicule, call them names, and mimic or use body language such as eye-rolling or scoffing. to make them feel despised and worthless |
| Stonewalling | when the listener withdraws from the interaction, shuts down, and simply stops responding to their partner. |
| The importance in immediate feedback | For communication to be effective in close relationships, we are able to give and receive immediate feedback on how our words and behaviors are interpreted frequently , in providing feedback, people discover something about themselves |
| Feelings versus Judgement | The key to effective communication rests on our willingness to to express feelings rather than judgements |
| What is the scientific method? | The scientific method is the best way we humans have of satisfying our our hunger for knowledge and understanding Observation prediction (form a guess about why) frame that guess as a testable hypothesis design an experiment |
| The Aroson and Mills Experiment up close | Results People in the mild or no initiation group rated the discussion boring, but the severe initiation group found it exciting Laboratory versus real-life initiation situations Should arosons and mills have used a dramatic real-life situation? |
| The importance of random assignment | A more important advantage than control Randomly assign people to each level of the independent variable (two levels minimum) Minimize the effect of individual differences between participants in a study for variables |
| Problems of using intact groups | Group self-selects, so members may share common attributes |
| Control versus impact | There are realistic limits to control with human participants Large unmeasured individual differences affect our results Too much control can make the experimental situation sterile |
| The challenge of experimentation in social psychology: Deception | The best way to achieve experimental realism is to design a setting that will be absorbing and interesting to the participants It is frequently necessary to disguise the true purpose of the study to avoid interfering with meaningful results |
| The challenge of experimentation in social psychology: Replication problems | helps clarify the results, and ensure that the original results are repeatable Sometimes a fail replication is a failure of technique |
| Ethical problem | Deception may be the best way to get useful information about the way people behave in complicated situations but presens the experimenter with three ethical problems It’s not nice to lie to people Invasion of privacy May be embarrassing |
| Five guidelines for conducting research | Producers that cause intense pain or discomfort should be avoided Should be provided real options for quitting Should be alert to alternative procedures to deception |
| What if our discoveries are misused? | We are morally responsible for what we discover Influencing others Knowledge of social behavior the public is largely independent of of the efforts of social psychologists The importance of social psychologists studying social behaviors |
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