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SOCL 2002 Exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| social structure | underlying framework of society consisting of the positions people occupy and the relationships between them |
| mini social structure examples | family: parents, grandparents, children |
| medium social sturcture examples | LSU: professors/faculty, students, president |
| large social structure | a whole country or nation |
| social interaction | reciprocal exchange in which two or more people read, react, and respond to each other (doesn't require talking: driving, walking, social media, emails) |
| 4 elemental building blocks of society | statuses and roles, gorups, social networks, and social institutions |
| status | social positions we occupy relative to others (Ex. white, students, woman, child, sister) |
| master status | status that dominates others and thereby determines a person's general position in society/overall social location in the social hierarchy; this status is what most will define you by (race or gender, sometimes high careers-president) |
| ascribed status | social position assigned to a person by society *by birth* without regard for the person's unique talents or characteristics (gender, race, ethnicity, culture/religion) |
| achieved status | social position that is within our power to change (social class, occupation, education, partner/spouse, parent) |
| social role | set of expected behaviors of people who occupy a given social status (ex. student expected to get good grades, turn in work, go to class, make friends, or live in dorms) |
| role strain | difficulty that arises when role expectations within the SAME social status clash (ex. student - study and do good but have a social life, go to class but take care of mental health, etc) |
| role conflict | situation that occurs when incompatible expectations arise from 2 or more social statuses held by the same person (student & employee - do homework while working long hours) (spouse * doctor - spend time w family while advancing in career) |
| role exit | transition of statuses and roles throughout our lives (starting a career, divorcing, retiring, losing someone, etc) |
| stages of role exit | doubt, search for alternatives, leaving, new identity (Ex. divorce - question compatibility, think about leaving or date others, breaking up, becoming single or entering a new relationship) |
| group | two or more people united by a shared sense of identity or purpose, who interact with each other over time in ways that distinguish them from outsiders (ex. friends, greek life, siblings, sociology class, etc |
| primary group | small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation (siblings, greek life on campus, coworkers that are friends outside of work, etc) |
| secondary gorup | formal, impersonal gorups created to accomplish specific, shared goals (major/department, national greek chapters, sociology class, etc) |
| in-group | category of people who share a common identity and sense of belonging |
| out-group | category of people who do not belong and who do not fit in |
| reference group | any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior (ex. JV athlete - varsity // rushing greek - members of sorority/frat) |
| coalition | temporary or permanent alliance toward a common goal (ex. labor unions, activist groups, political groups) |
| social network | web of relationships through which people interact both directly and indirectly to accomplish formal and informal goals (friend/family networks, work networks to achieve money, support, or access) |
| node | individuals in a social network (dots/points when graphed) |
| relationship | connections between nodes in a social network (lines when graphed) |
| dyad | most basic building block of a social network that consists of two nodes and the relationship between them |
| triad | three nodes and the direct and indirect relationships among them within a social network |
| three observations from the college friend networks study | tightknitters, compartmentalizers, and samplers |
| tightknitters | (ball of yarn) pattern of friendship where everyone is interconnected with everyone; direct relationship where all your friends know each other (sorority, frat, dorm floor) |
| compartmentalizers | (bowtie) one person has two or more friend groups that do not know/interact w each other and they are the connector; two groups only have that one person in common (highschool vs. college friends) |
| samplers | (daisy) one person has lots of friends, but none of the friends know each other (tend to feel more lonely) |
| the friendship paradox | most people have fewer friends than their friends have (bc of math, famous people drive up averages) |
| weak ties vs. strong ties | strong tie networks are based on homophily (close relationships with people like us); weak ties connect us with new networks that we don't have direct relationships with |
| homophily | tendency to establish close social network relationships with others who share our same knowledge, beliefs, practices, and characteristics |
| Granovetter's belief on strong ties | more intimate and direct relationships with those similar to us (resources and people are similar) |
| Granovetter's belief on weak ties | less intimate and made of indirect formal relationships (something you don't already have that offers more social capital) |
| social institutions | integrated and persistent social network dedicated to ensuring that society's core needs are met ( family - reproduction, shelter, support; education - teaching, socialization, work; religion - values, faith, community; economy - jobs, money, exchange) |
| Ferdinand Tonnies | viewed the city as a dramatic change from the ideal of a close-knit community in his native Germany |
| germeinschaft | close-knit community, often found in rural areas, in which strong personal bonds unite members |
| gesellschaft | consists of a large, impersonal, task-orientated society, typically urban, in which individuals have a limited commitment to the group |
| mechanical solidarity | social cohesion based on shared experiences, knowledge, and skills in which things function more or less the way they always have, with minimal change (societies with a minimal division of labor) |
| organic solidarity | social cohesion based on mutual interdependence in the context of an extreme division of labor |
| gerhard lenski | believed society's level of technology is critical to the way it is organized and new social forms arise as technology changes |
| preindustrial society | hunting-and-gathering society, horticultural society, and agrarian society |
| hunting-and-gathering society | preindustrial society where people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available in order to survive |
| horticultural society | preindustrial society where people plant seeds and crops rather than merely subsist on available foods |
| agrarian society | preindustrial society where members are engaged primarily in the production of food, but they increase their crop yields through technological innovations such as the plow; some people are freed up to focus specialized tasks |
| industrial society | society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services |
| impacts of the industrial revolution | specialization of taks and manufacturing replaced the home workshop, people became more interdependent, education became a social instituion due to the need for specialized knowledge, creation of bureaucracies, people relocated to cities for jobs |
| postindustrial society | society whose economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information; main output is services rather than manufactured goods |
| postmodern society and its key characteristics | technologically sophisticated, pluralistic, interconnected, globalized society; stories, images, choices, networks |
| bureaucracy | formal organization built upon the principle of maximum efficiency; Max Weber believed it to be the most rational form of management |
| Weber's 5 core characteristics of bureaucracy | division of labor, hierarchy of authority, written rules and regulations, impersonality, employment based on qualifications |
| ideal type | abstract model of the essential characteristics of a phenomenon (used by max weber to identify bureaucracies characteristics) |
| division of labor | specialized experts perform specific tasks for efficiency and workers experience alienation and job insecurity |
| hierarchy of authority | each position is under the supervision of a higher authority |
| written rules and regulations | bureaucracies generally offer employees clear statements of their rights and responsibilites as well as goal displacement |
| goal displacement | overzealous conformity to official regulations of a bureaucracy |
| impersonality | bureaucratic norms dictate that officials perform their duties without giving personal consideration to people as individuals |
| employment based on technical qualifications | performance is measured against specific standards, written policies dictate who gets promoted and often provide an avenue for appeal, and such procedures protect workers against arbitrary dismissal |
| bureaucratization | process by whicb a group, an organizationk, or social movement increasingly relies on technical-rational decision making in the pursuit of efficiency |
| mcdonaldization | process by which the principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control shape organization and decision making around the world |
| iron law of oligarchy | principle that all organizations, even democratic ones, tend to develop into a bureaucracy ruled by an elite few; leaders have vested interest to hold on to power |
| scientific management approach | theory of management that measures all aspects of the work process to eliminate any inefficiencies; established by Frederick Taylor where workers are treated as objects to be managed and their cares/ concerns are ignored |
| human relations approach | approach to the study of formal organizations that emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation in a bureaucracy and tends to focus on the informal structure of the organization |
| social control | society's power to limit deviance by enforcing conformity to expected norms and values to maintain social order |
| conformity | abiding by the norms of our peers even though they have no direct authority over us; peer-to-peer, horizontal, same status, social pressure to fit in (drinking, fashion, beliefs |
| obedience | doing what a person in a position of authority over you says you should; authority to person, vertical, different status, submitting to the rules beause we respect the authority of the rule giver (ex. turning in assignments, taking medicine) |
| Stanley Milgram | studied obedience through the electric shock experiement and found that people will go beyond what they morally agree with when following orders (what nazis claimed after the holocaust) |
| autonomous | when you make the decision |
| agentic state | when we act as "agents" for someone else who we perceive to be a valid authority and assume they will take responsibility for their actions |
| informal social control | use of interpersonal cues through everyday interaction to enforce norms; aimed at producing conformity (ex. judgement from peers/strangers, shamed, side eye) |
| formal social control | imposition of sanctions (positive or negative) is done by officially recognized authorities in order to enforce norms; emphasizes obedience (ex. jail, raise/bonus, scholarships, fees) |
| law | formal norms enforced by the state (breaking the law is a form of deviance but not all deviance breaks the law) |
| deviance | any behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group (small cale) or society (large scale); context and power/status matters when determining if behavior is deviant |
| deviance reinforces social norms | punishment for deviance deters future deviance so people are more likely to follow the norm |
| deviance challenges the norm | if enough people act deviantly, sometimes the rule itself can change (collective deviance can lead to social change) |
| stigma | labeling individuals or members of a group as less than whole persons due to some attribute that marks them as different in the eyes of others; form of social control |
| crime | violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties |
| index crimes | eight types of crime reported annually by the FBI adn reported in their Uniform Crime Reports (violent: murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assualt; property: burglary, larceny theft, motor vehicle theft, arson) |
| trends in crime | violent crimes have decreased 10.6% since 2008 |
| victimization surveys | questionnaires or interviews that ask representative samples of the population whether or not they have been victims of crime since many crimes go unreported which limit crime statistics |
| white-collar crimes | illegal acts committed by high-status individuals who use their positions of power and influence for their own benefit (tax evasion, embezzlement, etc) and receive less harsh punishments than those convicted of street crimes (likely due to high status) |
| victimless crimes | term used by sociologists to describe the willing exchange among adults of widely desired, but illegal, goods and services (gambling, drug use, prostitution) |
| organized crime | work of a group that regulates relations among criminal enterprises involved in illegal activities, including prostitution, gambling, and the smuggling and sale of drugs |
| ethnic succession | describes the sequential passage of organized crime leadership from one people to the next (Irish Americans to Jewish Americans) |
| international crime | drug and arms struggling, money laundering, and trafficking in unauthorized immigrants and stolen goods |
| transnational crime | crime that occurs across multiple national borders (ex. slavery, human and wildlife trafficking, illicit trade in firearms, fradulent medicine sales, counterfeiting goods, and migrant smuggling |
| Durkheim's functions of deviance | the context of the action impacts whether we think it is a crime or not; deviance serves a positive social function since collectively labeling acts as deviant clarifies our shared beliefs/values bringing us closer tigether |
| Merton's strain theory | theory of deviance as an adaptation of socially prescribed goals or of the means governing their attainment, or both |
| 5 possible adaptations of Merton's theory of deviance | conformist, innovator, ritualist, retreatist, rebel |
| conformist | person who accepts both the overall societal goal and the approved means; has a goal and has the means to complete the goal |
| innovator | accepts the goals of society but pursues them with means that are regarded as improper (ex. goal: go on vacation, means: steal money to do it) |
| ritualist | abandoned the goal of material success and became compulsively committed to the institutional means (work becomes a way of life instead of just means to success) |
| retreatist | retreated from both the goals and the means of society (addicts) |
| rebel | feels alienated from the dominant means and goals and seek a dramatically different social order |
| Hirschi's social control theory | theory of deviance that posits that the social bonds we share with other members of society lead us to conform to society's norms due to attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief |
| attachment | emotional ties and senseof connection individuals feel toward significant others in their lives |
| commitment | involves the extent to which individuals view their long-term success as tied to the ongoing success of their society; investing one's time, energy, and resources in the existing system reduces the likelihood of deviance |
| involvement | spending time doing what is expected which reduces a person's availability for deviance; prevents deviance by keeping people busy |
| belief | involves buying into the society's core values by making them one's own; people least integrated into society are most likely to commit deviant acts |
| cultural transmission | a school of criminology that argues that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions |
| differential association | theory of deviance that holds that violation of rules results from exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts |
| social disorganization theory | theory that attributes increases in crime and deviance to the absence or breakdown of communal relationships and social institutions, such as family, school, church, and local government |
| broken window hypothesis | theory that physical signs of decline (abandoned cars, graffiti, litter) in a community indicate a corresponding breakdown of social order within which crime and deviance are likely to thrive |
| labeling theory/societal-reaction approach | approach to deviance that attempts to explain why certain people are viewed as deviants while others engaged in the same behavior are not; the response to an act, not the act itself, determines deviance |
| differential justice | applying social control differently to different gorups of people |
| social movement | groups of individuals and organizations collectively committed to bringing about, or resisting, fundamental societal change in a systematic way |
| 4 approaches to understanding social movements | crowd theory, relative deprivation, rational action and resource mobilization, and power of compassion |
| crowd theory | people getting swept up in the crowd and emotionally manipulated by leaders into doing something they would not normally do (emotion vs. rationale) |
| relative deprivation | people's perception that they lack the resources necessary to lead the kind of life they believe they deserve |
| rational action and resource mobilization | rational management of resources to accomplish a social movement's organizational goals |
| power of compassion | why people participate and what keeps them engaged |
| Jasper's 3 categories of moral emotions | pride, compassion, and justice |
| pride | joining a soial movement to feel that sense of connection to something bigger and more important themselves |
| justice | the deep sense of unfairness makes people want to act |
| social change | shifts in how humans think and act within society that alter material, cognitive, and normative culture |
| material culture and change | technology represents one of the core elements of material culture and is questioned whether its innovation equals progress |
| technology's benefits | innovations in health and health care (pacemakers, contact lenses, defibrillators, insulin pumps, vaccines, etc) |
| technology's costs | can replace people's jobs, lose privacy, genetic modifications |
| luddites | rebellious craftworkers in 19th-century England who destroyed new factory machinery as part of their resistance to the Industrial Revolution |
| cognitive culture and change | change here involves new values, beliefs, and knowledge |
| social evolution | theory of social change that holds that societies progress from simple to complex over time; change is inevitable and follows a predictable path, which reduces the perceived need to fight for positive social change |
| equilibrium model | theory that society's natural tendency is toward social order with change in one part of society counterbalanced by adjustments |
| Parsons four processes of social change that are inevitble | differentiation. adaptive upgrading, inclusion, and generalization |
| differentiation | division of society into specialized subsystems when the overlapping functions associated with family, education, religion politics, and economy become increasingly seperate |
| adaptive upgrading | increased specialization of taks/the division of labor that allows for greater productivity and effiiciency |
| inclusion | ensures that the various elements of the social system work together by building links between those elements |
| generalization | involves the development of new values to legitimate the broader range of activities that arose within the system |
| marx's idea of social change | happens when a revolution in social relations occur leading to a new stage of economic and social development |
| vested interests | groups of people who benefit most from the existing social, political, and economic system; resist social change |
| normative culture and change | changes here involve how we act and the rules we establish for governing behavior; consider agency when thinking about changes |
| personal sociology | practice of recognizing the impact the positions we occupy have on who we are and how we think and act |
| practicing personal sociology | be aware of how society limits our choices so that we are empowered to make choices that are more informed and therefore more effective in helping us attain our goals; learn and ask ourselves if the current values, norms, and goals should be followed |
| public sociology | process of bringing the insights gained through sociological observation and analysis into the public sphere, thereby seeking to bring about positive social change |
| practicing sociology | practice personal sociology, become aware of privilege, become informed, vote, participate in politics, volunteer, join, organize, and fight for change |
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