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psychology exam #2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absentmindedness | lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else |
| acoustic encoding | input of sounds, words, and music |
| amnesia | loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma |
| anterograde amnesia | loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma |
| arousal theory | strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories |
| Atkinson-Shiffrin model | memory model that state we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory |
| automatic processing | encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words |
| blocking | memory error in which you cannot access stored information |
| chunking | organizing information into manageable bits of chunks |
| construction | formulation of new memories |
| declarative memory | type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience |
| effortful processing | encoding of information that takes effort and attention |
| elaborative rehearsal | thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory |
| encoding | input of information into the memory system |
| engram | physical trace of memory |
| episodic memory | type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory |
| equipotentiality hypothesis | some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories |
| explicit memory | memories we consciously try to remember and recall |
| false memory syndrome | recall of false autobiographical memories |
| flashbulb memory | exceptionally clear recollection of an important event |
| implicit memory | memories that are not part of our consciousness |
| levels of processing | information that is thought of more deeply becomes more meaningful and thus better committed to memory |
| long-term memory | continuous storage of information |
| memory | set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time |
| memory-enhancing strategy | technique to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory |
| misattribution | memory error in which you confuse the source of your information |
| misinformation effect paradigm | after exposure to additional and possible inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event |
| mnemonic device | memory aids that help organize information for encoding |
| persistence | failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones |
| proactive interference | old information hinders the recall of newly learned information |
| procedural memory | type of long-term memory for making skilled actions |
| recognition | identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue |
| reconstruction | process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information |
| rehearsal | repetition of information to be remembered |
| relearning | learning information that was previously learned |
| retrieval | act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness |
| retroactive interference | information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information |
| retrograde amnesia | loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma |
| self-reference effect | tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance |
| semantic encoding | input of words and their meaning |
| semantic memory | type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts |
| sensory memory | storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes |
| short-term memory | holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used |
| storage | creation of a permanent record of information |
| suggestibility | effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories |
| transience | memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time |
| visual encoding | input of images |
| absolute threshold | minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time |
| afterimage | continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus |
| amplitude | height of a wave |
| basilar membrane | thin strip of tissue within the cochlea that contains the hair cells which serve as the sensory receptors for the auditory system |
| binaural cue | two-eared cue to localize sound |
| binocular cue | cue that relies on the use of both eyes |
| binocular disparity | slightly different view of the world that each eye recieves |
| blind spot | point where we cannot respond to visual information in that portion of the visual field |
| bottom-up processing | system in which perceptions are built form sensory input |
| closure | organizing our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts |
| cochlea | fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure that contains the sensory receptor cells of the auditory system |
| cochlear implant | electronic device that consists of a microphone, a speech processor, and an electrode array to directly stimulate the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain |
| conductive hearing loss | failure in the vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles |
| cone | specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color |
| congenital deafness | deafness from birth |
| congenital analgesia | genetic disorder that results in the inability to experience pain |
| cornea | transparent covering over the eye |
| deafness | partial or complete inability to hear |
| decibel | logarithmic unit of sound intensity |
| depth perception | ability to perceive depth |
| electromagnetic spectrum | all the electromagnetic radiation that occurs in our environment |
| figure-ground relationship | segmenting our visual world into figure and ground |
| fovea | small indentation in the retina that contains cones |
| frequency | number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period |
| Gestalt psychology | field of psychology based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts |
| good continuation | we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines |
| hair cell | auditory receptor cell of the inner ear |
| hertz | cycles per second; measure of frequency |
| inattentional blindness | failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention |
| incus | middle ear ossicle; also known as the anvil |
| inflammatory pain | signal that some type of tissue damage has occurred |
| interaural level difference | sound coming from one side of the body is more intense at the closest ear because of the attenuation of the sound wave as it passes through the head |
| interaural timing difference | small difference in the time at which a given sound wave arrives at each ear |
| iris | colored portion of the eye |
| just noticeable difference | difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli |
| kinesthesia | perception of the body's movement through space |
| lens | curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye |
| linear perspective | perceive depth in an image when two parallel lines seem to converge |
| malleus | middle ear ossicle; also known as the hammer |
| Meissner's corpuscle | touch receptor that responds to pressure and lower frequency vibrations |
| Meniere's disease | results in a degeneration of inner ear structures that can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, vertigo, and an increase in pressure within the inner ear |
| Merkel's disk | touch receptor that responds to light touch |
| monaural cue | one-eared cue to localize sound |
| monocular cue | cue that requires only one eye |
| neuropathic pain | pain from damage to neurons of either the peripheral or central nervous system |
| nociception | sensory signal indicating potential harm and maybe pain |
| olfactory bulb | bulb-like structure at the tip of the frontal love, where the olfactory nerves begin |
| olfactory receptor | sensory cell for the olfactory system |
| opponent-process theory of color perception | color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green |
| optic chiasm | X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain’s ventral surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the visual field to the opposite side of the brain |
| optic nerve | carries visual information from the retina to the brain |
| ossicles | three tiny bones in the middle ear consisting of the malleus, incus, and stapes |
| Pacinian corpuscle | touch receptor that detects transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations |
| pattern perception | ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes |
| peak | highest point of a wave |
| perception | way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced |
| perceptual hypothesis | educated guess used to interpret sensory information |
| pheromone | chemical message sent by another individual |
| photorecptor | light-detecting cell |
| pinna | visible part of the ear that protrudes from the head |
| pitch | perception of a sound's frequency |
| place theory of pitch perception | different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies |
| principle of closure | organize perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts |
| proprioception | perception of body position |
| proximity | things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together |
| pupil | small opening in the eye through which light passes |
| retina | light-sensitive lining of the eye |
| rod | specialized photoreceptor that works well in low light conditions |
| Ruffini corpuscle | touch receptor that detects stretch |
| sensation | what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor |
| sensorineural hearing loss | failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain |
| sensory adaptation | not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time |
| signal detection theory | change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state |
| similarity | things that are alike tend to be grouped together |
| stapes | middle ear ossicle; also known as the stirrup |
| subliminal message | message presented below the threshold of conscious awareness |
| taste bud | grouping of taste receptor cells with hair-like extensions that protrude into the central pore of the taste bud |
| temporal theory of pitch perception | sound's frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron |
| thermoception | temperature perception |
| timbre | descriptive term which refers to a sound's quality; impacted by the interplay of frequency, amplitude, and timing of sound waves |
| top-down processing | interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts |
| transduction | conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential |
| trichromatic theory of color perception | color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones |
| trough | lowest point of a wave |
| tympanic membrane | eardrum |
| umami | taste for monosodium glutamate |
| vertigo | spinning sensation |
| vestibular sense | contributes to our ability to maintain balance and body posture |
| visible spectrum | portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see |
| wavelength | length of a wave from one peak to the next peak |
| acquisition | period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response |
| associate learning | form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning) |
| classical conditioning | learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior |
| cognitive map | mental picture of the layout of the environment |
| conditioned response | response caused by the conditioned stimulus |
| conditioned stimulus | stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus |
| continuous reinforcement | rewarding a behavior every time it occurs |
| extinction | decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus |
| fixed internal reinforcement schedule | behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time |
| fixed ratio reinforcement schedule | set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded |
| higher-order conditioning | using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus |
| instinct | unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans |
| latent learning | learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it |
| law of effect | behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged |
| learning | change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience |
| model | person who performs a behavior that serves as an example |
| negative punishment | taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior |
| negative reinforcement | taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior |
| neutral stimulus | stimulus that does not initially elicit a response |
| observational learning | type of learning that occurs by watching others |
| operant conditioning | form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated |
| partial reinforcement | rewarding behavior only some of the time |
| positive punishment | adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior |
| positive reinforcement | adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior |
| primary reinforcer | has innate reinforcing qualities |
| punishment | implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior |
| radical behaviorism | staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations |
| reflex | unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment |
| reinforcement | implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior |
| secondary reinforcer | has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else |
| shaping | rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior |
| spontaneous recovery | return of a previously extinguished conditioned response |
| stimulus discrimination | ability to respond differently to similar stimuli |
| stimulus generalization | demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus |
| unconditioned response | natural behavior to a given stimulus |
| unconditioned stimulus | stimulus that elicits a reflexive response |
| variable interval reinforcement schedule | behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed |
| variable ratio reinforcement schedule | number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded |
| vicarious punishment | process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior |
| vicarious reinforcement | process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior |
| algorithm | problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions |
| analytical intelligence | aligned with academic problem solving and computations |
| anchoring bias | faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution |
| artificial concept | concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics |
| availability heuristic | faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you |
| cognition | thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgement, and memory |
| cognitive psychology | field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think |
| cognitive script | set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema |
| concept | category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences |
| confirmation bias | faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs |
| convergent thinking | providing correct or established answers to problems |
| creative intelligence | ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem |
| creativity | ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities |
| crystallized intelligence | characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it |
| cultural intelligence | ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture |
| divergent thinking | ability to think "outside the box" to arrive at novel solutions to a problem |
| dyscalculia | learning disability that causes difficulty in learning or comprehending mathematics |
| dysgraphia | learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly |
| dyslexia | common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain |
| emotional intelligence | ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others |
| event schema | set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script |
| fluid intelligence | ability to see complex relationships and solve problems |
| Flynn effect | observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation |
| functional fixedness | inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended |
| grammar | set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon |
| heuristic | mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem |
| hindsight bias | belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't |
| intelligence quotient | score on a test designed to measure intelligence |
| language | communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another |
| lexicon | the words of a given language |
| mental set | continually using an old solution to a problem without results |
| morpheme | smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning |
| Multiple Intelligences Theory | Gardner's theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence |
| natural concept | mental groupings that are created "naturally" through your experiences |
| norming | administering a test to a large population so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for a population and its groups |
| overgeneralization | extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule |
| phoneme | basic sound unit of a given language |
| practical intelligence | aka "street smarts" |
| problem-solving strategy | method for solving problems |
| prototype | best representation of a concept |
| range of reaction | each person's response to the environment is unique based on their genetic make-up |
| representative bias | faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgement |
| representative sample | subset of the population that accurately represents the general population |
| role schema | set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role |
| schema | mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts |
| semantics | process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words |
| standard deviation | measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean |
| standardization | method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent |
| syntax | manner by which words are organized into sentences |
| trial and error | problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found |
| triarchic theory of intelligence | Sternberg's theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence; practical, creative, and analytical |
| working backwards | heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result |
| accommodation | adjustment of a schema by changing a scheme to accommodate new information different from what was already known |
| adolescence | period of development that begins at puberty and ends at early adulthood |
| adrenarche | maturing of the adrenal glands |
| advance directive | a written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants |
| assimilation | adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known |
| attachment | long-standing connection or bond with others |
| authoritarian parenting style | parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child |
| authoritative parenting style | parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child’s point of view |
| avoidant attachment | characterized by child’s unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves |
| cognitive development | domain of lifespan development that examines learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity |
| cognitive empathy | ability to take the perspective of others and to feel concern for others |
| conception | when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote |
| concrete operational stage | third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from about 7 to 11 years old, children can think logically about real (concrete) events |
| conservation | idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed |
| continuous development | view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills |
| critical period | time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop |
| developmental milestone | approximate ages at which children reach specific normative events |
| discontinuous development | view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages |
| disorganized attachment | characterized by the child’s odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused |
| do not resuscitate | a legal document stating that if a person stops breathing or their heart stops, medical personnel such as doctors and nurses are not to take steps to revive or resuscitate the patient |
| egocentrism | preoperational child's difficulty in taking the perspective of others |
| embryo | multi-cellular organism in its early stages of development |
| emerging adulthood | newly defined period of lifespan development from 18 years old to the mid-20s; young people are taking longer to complete college, get a job, get married, and start a family |
| fine motor skills | use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions |
| formal operational stage | final stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from age 11 and up, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations |
| gonadarche | maturing of the sex glands |
| gross motor skills | use of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements |
| health care proxy | a legal document that appoints a specific person to make medical decisions for a patient if they are unable to speak for themselves |
| hospice | service that provides a death with dignity; pain management in a humane and comfortable environment; usually outside of a hospital setting |
| living will | a written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants; may include health care proxy |
| menarche | beginning of menstrual period; around 12-13 years old |
| mitosis | process of cell division |
| motor skills | ability to move our body and manipulate objects |
| nature | genes and biology |
| newborn reflexes | inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation that all healthy babies are born with |
| normative approach | study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones |
| nurture | environment and culture |
| object permanence | idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exsists |
| permissive parenting style | parents make few demands and rarely use punishment |
| physical development | domain of lifespan development that examines growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness |
| placenta | structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing baby |
| prenatal care | medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus |
| preoperational stage | second stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from ages 2 to 7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not understand mental operations and often think illogically |
| primary sexual characteristics | organs specifically needed for reproduction |
| psychosexual development | process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life |
| psychosocial development | domain of lifespan development that examines emotions, personality, and social relationships |
| resistant attachment | characterized by the child's tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when they attempt to interact with the child |
| reversibility | principle that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition |
| secondary sexual characteristics | physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs |
| secure attachment | characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore |
| sensorimotor stage | first stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from birth through age 2, a child learns about the world through senses and motor behavior |
| socioemotional selectivity theory | social support/friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in earlier years |
| spermarche | first male ejaculation |
| stage of moral reasoning | process proposed by Kohlberg; humans move through three stages of moral development |
| temperament | innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment |
| teratogen | biological, chemical, or physical environment agent that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus |
| uninvolved parenting style | parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands |
| zygote | structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and placenta |
| anorexia nervosa | eating disorder characterized by an individual maintaining body weight that is well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise |
| bariatric surgery | type of surgery that modifies the gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting how much of the digested food can be absorbed |
| basolateral complex | part of the brain with dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain; it is critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory |
| binge eating disorder | type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating and associated distress |
| body language | emotional expression through body position or movement |
| bulimia nervosa | type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging |
| Cannon-Bard theory of emotion | physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time |
| central nucleus | part of the brain involved in attention and has connections with the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems’ activity |
| cognitive-mediational theory | our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus |
| components of emotion | physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experience |
| cultural display rule | one of the culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of emotions that are acceptable |
| distorted body image | individuals view themselves as overweight even though they are not |
| drive theory | deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis |
| emotion | subjective state of being often described as feelings |
| excitement | phase of the sexual response cycle that involves sexual arousal |
| extrinsic motivation | motivation that arises from external factors or rewards |
| facial feedback hypothesis | facial expressions are capable of influencing our emotions |
| gender dysphoria | diagnostic category in DSM-5 for individuals who experience enduring distress as a result of their gender identity not aligning with their sex assigned at birth |
| gender identity | individual's sense of being male, female, neither of these, both of these, or another gender |
| habit | pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage |
| hierarchy of needs | spectrum of needs ranging from basic biological needs to social needs to self-actualization |
| intrinsic motivation | motivation based on internal feelings rather than external rewards |
| James-Lange theory of emotion | emotions arise from physiological arousal |
| leptin | satiety hormone |
| metabolic rate | amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time |
| plateau | phase of sexual response cycle that falls between excitement and orgasm |
| refractory period | time immediately following an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing another orgasm |
| resolution | phase of sexual response cycle following orgasm during which the body returns to its unaroused state |
| satiation | fullness; satisfaction |
| Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion | emotions consist of two factors: physiological and cognitive |
| self-efficacy | individual's belief in their own capabilities or capacities to complete a task |
| set point theory | assertion that each individual has an ideal body weight, or set point, that is resistant to change |
| sexual response cycle | divided into 4 phases including excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution |
| Yerkes-Dodson law | simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively high, while complex tasks are best performed when arousal is lower |
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