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AP Psych Unit 5
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| testing effect | enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information |
| deep processing | encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention |
| hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events |
| flashbulb memory | a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
| long-term potentiation (LTP) | an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory |
| recall | a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test |
| recognition | a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test |
| relearning | a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again |
| priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response |
| mood-congruent memory | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. |
| serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list |
| anterograde amnesia | an inability to form new memories |
| retrograde amnesia | an inability to retrieve information from one's past. |
| proactive interference | the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information |
| retroactive interference | the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information |
| repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
| misinformation effect | occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event |
| source amnesia | faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) This, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories |
| déjà vu | that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience |
| cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people |
| prototype | a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin) |
| creativity | the ability to produce new and valuable ideas |
| convergent thinking | narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution |
| divergent thinking | expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions |
| algorithm | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics |
| heuristic | a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more errorprone than an algorithm |
| insight | a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions |
| confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence |
| mental set | a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past |
| intuition | an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning |
| representativeness heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information |
| availability heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common |
| overconfidence | the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments |
| belief preservation | clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| framing | the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgments |
| language | our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning |
| phoneme | in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit |
| morpheme | in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) |
| grammar | in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences |
| babbling stage | beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language |
| one-word stage | the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words |
| two-word stage | beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements |
| telegraphic speech | early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs |
| aphasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding) |
| Broca's area | helps control language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech |
| Wernicke's area | a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe |
| linguistic determinism | the strong form of Whorf's hypothesis—that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us |
| Noam Chomsky | language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language |
| Hermann Ebbinghaus | the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well |
| Wolfgang Kohler | Gestalt psychologist that first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments. He noticed the solution process wasn't slow, but sudden and reflective. |
| Elizabeth Loftus | cognition and memory; studied repressed memories and false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions and illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony |
| George A. Miller | found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items. |
| intelligence | the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations |
| intelligence test | a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores |
| general intelligence (g) | according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. |
| factor analysis | a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score |
| savant syndrome | a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing |
| grit | Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension- Reduction—a strategy designed to decrease international tensions |
| emotional intelligence | the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions |
| mental age | a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8 |
| Stanford-Binet | the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test |
| intelligence quotient (IQ) | defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100 |
| achievement test | a test designed to assess what a person has learned |
| aptitude test | a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn |
| Wechler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) | the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests |
| standardization | defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group |
| normal curve | (normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes |
| reliability | the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting |
| validity | the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) |
| content validity | the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest |
| predictive validity | the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.) |
| cohort | a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period |
| longitudinal study | research that follows and retests the same people over time |
| cross-sectional study | research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time |
| crystallized intelligence | our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age |
| fluid intelligence | our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood |
| intellectual disability | a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or below and difficulty adapting to the demands of life. (Formerly referred to as mental retardation.) |
| down syndrome | a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 |
| heritability | the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied |
| stereotype threat | a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype |
| Alfred Binet | pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound |
| Francis Galton | behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance;Twin Studies,Hereditary Genius-used bell curve for normal distribution, & "Law of Errors"-differences in intellectual ability |
| Howard Gardner | devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic |
| Charles Spearman | intelligence; found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability) |
| Robert Sternberg | intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative) |
| Lewis Terman | revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life |
| David Wechsler | developer of WAIS and WISC intelligence tests |
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