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Psychology Chapter 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| a set of principles about the appropriate relationship between ideas and evidence. Father is Ibn al-Haytham | Scientific Method |
| a hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon. Rule of parsimony. Studies are conducted to evaluate different broad ones | Theory |
| a falsifiable prediction made by a theory | Hypothesis |
| a set of rules and techniques for observation | Empirical method |
| What are the three reasons that make people difficult to study? | Their complexity, variability, and reactivity |
| You can actually see and measure a particular variable | Objective observation |
| Personal feelings, thoughts, impressions, and assumptions | Subjective observation |
| a specific, precise procedure by which a variable is defined and measured | Operational definition |
| Everyday observations are often ___ and ____ | Inconsistent and incomplete |
| a device that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers (for example, an EMG) | Measure |
| the extent to which a measurement and a property are conceptually related | Construct validity |
| the tendency for a measure to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing: consistency | Reliability |
| the ability of a measure to detect the concrete conditions specified in the operational definition | Power |
| those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think they should. If people know that they’re being observed, they’ll act in the manner that they think they should | Demand characteristics |
| How do you reduce demand characteristics? | Privacy, observe involuntary behaviors, increase unawareness in participants |
| a technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments. Tactic to avoid demand characteristics. Some events don’t occur naturally and some events can only be observed through direct interaction | Naturalistic Observation |
| expectations can influence observations and influence perceptions of reality | Observer Bias |
| an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed. Helps increase confidence in the results of a study | Double-blind |
| a graphical representation of measurements arranged by the number of times each measurement was made | Frequency distribution |
| a mathematically defined frequency distribution in which most measurements are concentrated around the middle | Normal distribution |
| are non-normal (positive or negative skew) | Skewed distributions |
| center/ midpoint | Central tendency |
| The value of the most frequently observed measurement | Mode |
| The average value of all the measurements | Mean |
| The value that's in the middle of a data set | Median |
| Extent to which measurements differ | Variability |
| the value of the largest measurement in a frequency distribution minus the value of the smallest measurement | Range |
| A statistic that describes the average difference between the measurements in a frequency distribution and the mean of that distribution | Standard deviation |
| A property whose value can vary across individuals or over time | Variable |
| the variable that’s manipulated in an experiment | independent variable |
| the variable that’s measured in an experiment | dependent variable |
| two variables are said to be _______ when variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other | correlation (r) |
| correlation doesn't equal ____. Correlations are just relationships | Causation |
| both variables increase or decrease together. “More-more” or “less-less” | Positive correlation |
| as one variable increases, the other decreases. “More-less” or “less-more” | Negative correlation |
| a correlation observed in the world around us | Natural correlations |
| the fact that a casual relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of a third variable correlation | third variable problem |
| the fact that two variables are correlated only because each is causally related to a third variable (confounding variables) | third-variable correlation |
| a technique whereby the participants in two groups are identical in terms of a third variable | Matched samples |
| A technique whereby each participant is identical to one other participant in terms of a third variable | matched pairs |
| A technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables. Use manipulation and random assignment | Experiment |
| is a technique for determining the causal power of a variable by actively changing its value | Manipulation |
| a problem that occurs when anything about a participant determines the participant’s conditions | self-selection |
| a procedure that assigns participants to a condition by chance | Random assignment |
| determined when we calculate the odds that random assignment has failed, through inferential statistics. Not accepted unless the chance is less than 5% (p < .05) | Statistical significance |
| The characteristic of an experiment that established the causal relationship between variables | Internal validity |
| the property of an experiment in which the variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way; they’re representative of the real world | External validity |
| the complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured: N | population |
| The partial collection of people drawn from a population: n | Sample |
| A method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual | Case method |
| a technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Allows for generalization of results when the sample in truly representative | Random sampling |
| ______ is acceptable if the similarity between a sample and the population doesn’t matter, when replication is available, and if the similarity between the two is reasonable enough | non-random sampling |
| is an experiment that uses the same procedures as a previous experiment but with a new sample from the same population. Allows to to conclude that two variables are likely to be causally related | Replication |
| Staten Island, 1956-1963. Institutionalized kids, many with Down’s Syndrome, were deliberately infected with the hep. A Later, with overcrowding, parents were unable to gain admission for children, unless they agreed to study participation Coercion | Willowbrook State School |
| From 1946-1948, American public doctors deliberately infected nearly 700 Guatemalans – prison inmates, mental patients, and soldiers – with venereal disease in what was meant as an effort to test the effectiveness of penicillin | Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment |
| 10 standards to which physicians must conform when carrying out experiments on human subjects in a new code that is now accepted worldwide. This judgment established a new standard of ethical medical behaviour for the post World War II human rights era. | Nuremberg Code 1947 |
| a verbal agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail | Informed consent |
| a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study | Debriefing |
| Informed consent, freedom from coercion, protection from harm, risk-benefit analysis, deception, debriefing, confidentiality | APA code of ethics |
| All procedures involving animals must be supervised by trained psychologists. Discomfort&pain must be minimized Only when an alternative procedure is unavailable or justified by the value. Anesthesia is used when available (if a surgical procedure is use | Rules for animal respect |
| Respect for persons Research should be beneficent Research should be just | Belmont Report 1979 |
Created by:
Tristanuram
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