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Psych/Soc Final Exam
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Id | contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification |
| ego | the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. Operates on the reality principle. |
| Superego | the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations |
| Repression | keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious |
| Rationalization | Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior. |
| Regression | psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated |
| Projection | disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others |
| anal stage | Freud's pychosexual period during which a child learns to control his bodily excretions |
| anal retentive personality | a person fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn |
| Anal Expulsive personality | someone with expulsive personality tend to be messy and disorganized. |
| oral fixation | In Freud's personality theory, an excessive need for oral pleasures (such as eating, gum-chewing, or talking) that results from extreme denial or excessive indulgence of them during the first stage; may also be expressed through excessive dependence |
| phallic stage | Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals. |
| Oedipus complex | according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father |
| identification | the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos |
| latency stage | the fourth psychosexual stage, in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills |
| genital stage | Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence). |
| collective unconscious | Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history |
| Archetype | A detail, image, or character type that occurs frequently in literature and myth and is thought to appeal in a universal way to the unconscious and to evoke a response |
| inferiority complex | Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inferiority stemming from childhood experiences that must be overcome to be one's true self |
| need for perfection | Karen Horney's idea that people have an unconscious need to be perfect which causes them not to be their true sel |
| internal locus of control | the perception that you control your own fate |
| external locus of control | the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control (luck, fate, gods) determine your fate. |
| consciousness | Big 5 Trait of how disciplined and organized we are |
| agreeableness | Big 5 Trait of how trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and soft-hearted one is |
| Neuroticism | Big 5 Trait of the degree of emotional instability or stability |
| openness to experience | Big 5 Trait of how intellectual, imaginative, curious, and broad-minded one is |
| Extroversion/Introversion | Big 5 Trait of how impulsive, sociable, assertive on the one extreme and shy, socially withdrawn, passive on the other |
| Deviance | violation of social norms |
| social control | attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior |
| Strain Theory | Deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals |
| Anomie | a social condition in which norms are weak, conflicting, or absent. Gap between society's goals and the socially acceptable ways to achieve them. |
| conformity (strain theory) | accepts culturally approved goals; pursues them through culturally approved means |
| Innovation (Strain Theory) | deviant person accepts goal but uses illegal means to achieve it |
| Ritualism (strain theory) | abandons society's goals but continues to conform to approved means |
| Retreatism (strain theory) | abandons both approved goals and the approved means to achieve them |
| rebellion (strain theory) | Deviant person rejects goal and legitimate means to achieve goal, but also substitutes a new set of goals and a means to achieve them. |
| Social Control Theory | a theory of delinquency that links deviance with the absence of bonds to society's main institutions |
| Attachment (Social Control Theory) | the degree of loyalty to institutions and concern about the opinions of people in them |
| Commitment (Social Control Theory) | how much we value and stick to our participation in conventional activities |
| Involvement (Social Control Theory) | amount of time spent in conventional activities |
| Belief (Social Control Theory) | our acceptance of society's norms |
| Conflict Theory | explores how social and economic factors creating inequality are causes of crime and deviance |
| Power Elite | C. Wright Mills' term for the top people in U.S. corporations, military, and politics who make the nation's major decisions |
| labeling theory | the idea that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to and label to those actions |
| Primary Deviance | deviance involving occasional breaking of norms that is not a part of a person's lifestyle or self-concept |
| Secondary Deviance | deviance in which an individual's life and identity are organized around breaking society's norms |
| master status | one status within a set that stands out or overrides all others |
| differential association theory | theory that individuals learn deviance in proportion to number of deviant acts they are exposed to |
| Culture | Knowledge, values, customs and physical objects that are shared by members of society |
| Material Culture | the art, housing, clothing, sports, dances, foods, and other similar items constructed or created by a group of people |
| Nonmaterial Culture | The beliefs, practices, aesthetics, and values of a group of people. |
| Symbols | something that represents something else |
| Phonemes | smallest unit of sound |
| Morpheme | smallest unit of meaning |
| Grammar | in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others |
| Norms | rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members |
| Folkways | norms that lack moral significance and guide day-to-day activities |
| Mores | Norms that have moral dimensions and must be followed by members of a society |
| Taboo | A rule of behavior, the violation of which calls for strong punishment. The most serious form of a more |
| Law | a norm that is formally defined and enforced by officials |
| Sanctions | rewards and punishments used to encourage people to follow norms |
| Formal Sanction | sanctions imposed by persons given special authority |
| Informal Sanction | rewards or punishments that can be applied by most members of a group |
| Positive Sanction | a reward or positive reaction for following norms, ranging from a smile to a material reward |
| Negative Sanction | a punishment or the threat of punishment used to enforce conformity to a norm |
| Values | the ideas, beliefs, and attitudes about what is important that help guide the way you live |
| Ideal culture | cultural guidelines that group members claim to accept |
| Real Culture | actual behavior patterns of members of a group |
| Invention | Creation of something new that alters ways of life |
| Discovery | Finding something that already exists |
| Diffusion | borrowing of cultural traits between societies |
| Subculture | a group that is part of the dominant culture but that differs from it in some important respects |
| Counterculture | a subculture deliberately and consciously opposed to certain central beliefs or attitudes of the dominant culture |
| High Culture | cultural patterns that distinguish a society's elite and highest classes |
| Pop Culture | the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream society |
| Ethnocentrism | judging others in terms of one's own cultural standards |
| Cultural Relativism | the practice of judging a culture by its own standards, understanding its values/norms/beliefs in terms of how they function in a particular culture |
| cultural universals | Universal traits in all cultures, that are expressed differently in each culture |
| Encoding | putting information into memory |
| Storage | the process of retaining encoded information over time |
| Retrieval | the process of getting information out of memory storage |
| Sensory Memory | the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system |
| short-term memory | Memory that holds a few items for about 30 seconds before the information is stored or forgotten. Has a limit of +/- 7 bits of information |
| Long-Term Memory | the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
| declarative memory | Facts, information, personal life events. Can be imagined visually in the brain, talked about described, etc. |
| Episodic Memory | Type of declarative memory for personal life events |
| Semantic Memory | Type of declarative memory for general knowledge, facts and information |
| Procedural Memory | memory for motor skills and habits |
| flashbulb memory | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
| Mnemonic Device | A memory trick or technique |
| Method of Loci | A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations |
| pegword technique | use of familiar words or names as cues to recall items that have been associated with them (1 is a bun, 2 is a shoe) |
| Acrostics | Sentences whose first letters serve as cues for recalling specific information; a mnemonic device. |
| Shallow Processing | encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words |
| deep processing | encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention |
| Recall | A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. |
| recognition | a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test |
| Retrieval Cue | external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind |
| Schema | a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. Schemas are how memory is stored in our brain and how we interpret information |
| Priming | Encountering a stimulus earlier increases the speed and accuracy of retrieval |
| serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list |
| Primacy Effect | tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well |
| recency effect | tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well |
| proactive interference | the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information |
| retroactive interference | the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information |
| Repression | Forgetting due to removing thoughts and feelings from conscious memory |
| Amnesia | Loss of memory that occurs as a result of physical or psychological trauma |
| maladaptive behavior | behavior that makes it difficult to adapt to the environment and meet the demands of day-to-day life |
| DSM-5 | the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. |
| Anxiety Disorders | psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety |
| generalized anxiety disorder | an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal |
| panic disorder | An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. |
| phobia | a persistent and unreasonable fear of a particular object, activity, or situation |
| social anxiety disorder | an anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations |
| agoraphobia | fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic |
| obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) | an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) |
| obsessions | persistent ideas, thoughts, or impulses that are unwanted and inappropriate, causing marked distress |
| compulsions | Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that are performed to prevent or reduce anxiety. |
| post-traumatic stress disorder | an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience |
| Depressive Disorders | Characterized by emotional extremes that are abnormal, maladaptive and interfere with daily living |
| major depressive disorder | A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities. |
| Rumination | compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes |
| Explanatory style | A person's characteristic way of explaining his experiences. Consistently attributing bad experiences to internal, global, and stable causes may increase vulnerability to depression. |
| Bipolar Disorder | A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. |
| Mania | a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state characteristic of bipolar disorder |
| Bipolar I | full-blown mania that alternates with episodes of major depression |
| Bipolar II | hypomania (less severe) that alternates with episodes of major depression |
| Psychotic Disorder | a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions |
| Schizophrenia | a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions |
| Delusions | false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders |
| Hallucinations | false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus |
| Flat Affect | a lack of emotional responsiveness |
| Catatonia | a state of unresponsiveness to one's outside environment, usually including muscle rigidity, staring, and inability to communicate. Can be characteristic of specific types of Schizophrenia. |
| ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) | a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity |
| ADHD Inattention | wandering of task, lacking persistence, difficulty with focus, disorganized, but not due to defiance |
| ADHD hyperactivity | -fidgeting -restlessness -running about inappropriately |
| Autism Spectrum Disorder | a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors |
| Learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience |
| unconditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. |
| unconditioned response | In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | in classical conditioning, an originally neutral, stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. |
| conditioned response (CR) | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) |
| Extinction | the weakening of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); |
| acquisition | In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus |
| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
| Generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
| Discrimination | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
| taste aversion | a learned avoidance of a particular food |
| postive reinforcement | adding a desired stimulus to increase behavior |
| negative reinforcement | taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior |
| positive punishment | adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease behavior |
| negative punishment | taking away a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior |
| observational learning | learning by observing others; also called social learning |
| Modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
| primary reinforcement | something necessary for psychological or physical survival that is used as a reward (food, water) |
| secondary reinforcement | Something that you have learned to value that is reinforcing, like money. |
| Nature vs. Nurture | name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior |
| Neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system |
| Dendrite | the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body |
| Axon | the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands |
| myelin sheath | speeds up neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. |
| action potential | a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon |
| Synapse | Gap between neurons |
| Neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons |
| Reuptake | a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron |
| Acetylcholine | A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction |
| Dopamine | Neurotransmitter that allows us to feel pleasure and reward |
| Serotonin | Regulates mood. "Makes us feel happy" |
| Agonist | a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action |
| Antagonist | decreases a neurotransmitter's action |
| Medulla | controls heartbeat and breathing |
| Pons | Controls sleep |
| reticular formation | Controls attention and arousal |
| Cerebellum | Balance and coordination |
| Thalamus | the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortices |
| Amygdala | A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. |
| Hypothalamus | A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. |
| Hippocampus | A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. |
| cerebral cortex | The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. |
| corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them |
| frontal lobe | associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving |
| parietal lobe | A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about bodily touch. |
| occipital lobe | control vision |
| temporal lobe | controls hearing |
| motor cortex | an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements |
| somatosensory cortex | area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations |
| Broca's area | Control language production. Tells our mouth to move |
| Wernicke's area | controls our ability to understand and comprehend language |
| association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking |
| circadian rhythm | the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle |
| NREM sleep | Quiet, typically dreamless sleep in which rapid eye movements are absent; divided into three stages |
| REM sleep | Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. |
| sleep spindles | short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep |
| manifest content | according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream |
| latent content | according to Freud, the underlying, unconscious meaning of a dream |
| Psychology | the scientific study of behavior and mental processes |
| clinical psychologist | a psychologist who diagnoses and treats people with mental illnesses but cannot prescribe drugs |
| psychiatrist | a medical doctor who diagnoses and treats people with mental illnesses is allowed to prescribe drugs (can also use other forms of therapy) |
| counseling psychologist | a psychologist who usually helps people deal with problems of living, or adjustment (addictions, marriage/divorce, school and college etc) |
| Theory | An explanation for two behaviors or events based on observations |
| Hypothesis | A testable prediction |
| operational definition | A method used to quantify (turn into a number) behaviors or emotions (rating scale 1-5, # of times, length of time etc.) |
| case study | one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
| naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
| survey | self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group |
| sampling bias | When you do not have a representative sample in a study |
| positive correlation | A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction. |
| negative correlation | the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases |
| correlation coefficient | Close to 1 = strong Close to 0 = weak Can only range from -1 to +1 |
| experimental group | In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment |
| control group | In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; may get a placebo |
| Placebo | a fake drug used in the testing of medication that has no effect |
| double-blind procedure | an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff both don't know who received the treatment or a placebo. |
| independent variable | The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. |
| dependent variable | The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. |
| confounding variable | a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. What "messed up" the experiment |
| informed consent | research participants have to be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate |
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