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Final Review
based on short answer questions & chapter 1
Question | Answer |
---|---|
What happens when an adolescent experiences a crisis and makes a commitment? | Achievement |
According to Marcia, what defines identity achievement? | an adultlike acceptance of social, religious, political, or vocational alternatives; the teen has explored their options and committed to a specific identity |
What happens when an adolescent experiences a crisis, but does not make a commitment? | Moratorium |
According to Marcia, what defines moratorium? | a period of exploration of alternatives; the adolescent continues to examine their options, but has not yet made a choice |
What happens when an adolescent does not experience a crisis, but makes a commitment anyways? | Foreclosure |
According to Marcia, what defines foreclosure? | a commitment predetermined by political, social, or religious affiliation; the adolescent makes a commitment without first exploring their options |
What happens when an adolescent does not experience a crisis and does not make a commitment? | Diffusion |
According to Marcia, what defines identity diffusion? | ambiguous belief systems and no vocational commitment; the adolescent simply has not given much thought to their identity, so they have not begun to explore their options, nor have they made a commitment |
James Marcia’s four states of adolescent identity development are based on what two factors? | The experience of a crisis and the making of a commitment, or the exploration of options and the making of a choice |
In James Marcia’s theory of identity achievement, what is meant by a “crisis?” | a time of great upheaval where one’s old values and/or choices are being reevaluated |
Identities forged from foreclosure are often | based on parental ideas and believes that the adolescent accepts without question |
Adolescents who experience identity diffusion | may become socially isolated and withdrawn |
The four states of Marcia’s identity development theory are not stages and should not be viewed as a ____ ____. | sequential process |
An individual in the achievement state will have a better understanding of their character, including their | strengths, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness |
An individual in the diffusion state will have a less well-developed identity and, thus, will not be able to define their personal ____, ____, and ____, and will not have a well-articulated sense of self. | strengths; weakness; uniqueness |
What are the major theoretical perspectives of psychology? | biological (neuroscience, evolutionary, and behavior genetics), psychoanalytic (Freudian and psychodynamic), behaviorism, cognitive, humanistic, and socio-cultural |
What is the primary concern of neuroscience? | Which chemicals (neurotransmitters) are active in which areas of the brain. How the brain and body enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences |
Which perspective holds the view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes? | behaviorism |
What is the primary concern of behavior genetics? | To what extent are which behaviors inherited? How much influence does nature have? How do our genes and our environment influence our individual differences? |
What do we call the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior? | behavior genetics |
What is the primary concern of evolutionary psychology? | Which behaviors helped our ancestors survive and breed? How has the natural selection of traits promoted the survival of certain genes? |
Which perspective involves the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection? | evolutionary psychology |
What is the primary concern of psychoanalytic (Freudian) psychology? | How do the unconscious mind and our childhood experiences/trauma influence our behavior and mental processes? |
According to Freud, what is our unconscious? | a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories |
According to contemporary psychologists, what is our unconscious? | information processing of which we are unaware |
What is our preconscious? | The realm of the mind in which the thoughts and feelings that we are somewhat aware of, but do not really understand, are present; it acts as a filter from information attempting to move from our unconscious to our conscious |
What is our conscious? | The realm of the mind in which the thoughts and feelings we’re completely aware of and have a deeper understanding of are present; it is dominated by the ego |
What is the ID? | the hedonistic seat of our unconscious desires and impulses, libido and thanatos; operates on the pleasure principle |
According to Freud, what is the ID? | a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives |
What is the pleasure principle? | demanding immediate gratification |
What is the libido? | our desire to create, sexual |
What is the thanatos? | our desire to destroy, aggressive |
What is the Ego? | the seat of learning/rationale that serves to satisfy the ID while remaining in the moral confines of the Super Ego; operates on the reality principle |
According to Freud, what is the Ego? | the partly conscious, “executive” part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality |
What is the reality principle? | satisfying the id’s desires in a way that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain |
What is the SuperEgo? | the seat of morality; our sense of what is right and wrong |
According to Freud, what is the superego? | the partly conscious part of personality that represents the internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations |
What is the primary concern of behavioral psychology? | Learning, what can be observed and measured, studying behavior without reference to mental processes, how we learn observable responses |
Which type of learning involves the linkage of two or more stimuli that enables the first stimulus to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus? | classical conditioning |
Which type of learning involves a behavior becoming more likely to recur if it is followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if it is followed by a punisher? | operant conditioning |
Which type of learning involves learning by observing others? | observational learning |
What is the primary concern of humanistic psychology? | the here and now, choice (free will), supporting oneself rather than looking to others for support, emphasizing human growth potential, our needs for love and acceptance, and the environments that nurture or limit personal growth |
What do we call the historically significant perspective that emphasizes human growth potential? | humanistic psychology |
What is the primary concern of cognitive psychology? | our thoughts, how we process things, our schemas/how they adapt to our experiences, use of logic (or lack thereof), our automatic thoughts and how they influence our emotions, as well as how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information |
Which perspective involves studying the mental processes involved in perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, communicating, and solving problems? | cognitive psychology |
What do we call the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, and language)? | cognitive neuroscience |
What do we call concepts or frameworks that organize and interpret information, and which are continually developed throughout the course of our lives? | schemas |
What is the primary concern of socio-cultural psychology? | larger social environment/background (macro-level); cultural differences (western vs eastern); differing traditions, religions, foods, and styles of clothing; how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures |
What do we call the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another? | social psychology |
Which type of research is pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base? | basic research |
Which type of research is scientific study that aims to solve practical problems? | applied research |
Why do we need statistics? | so that we can organize, describe, and interpret both qualitative and quantitative data |
What do between-group differences tell us? | how two or more groups are different |
What do within-group differences tell us? | about the differences among subjects who are in the same group |
What is the most frequently occurring score/scores in a distribution? | mode |
What is the middle score in a distribution (midpoint), in which half the scores are above it and half are below it? | median |
What is the average of all the scores in a distribution, which is obtained by adding up all the scores and dividing them by the number of scores in the distribution? | mean |
What term describes the natural tendency for extreme or unusual scores/events to revert back to their average? | regression towards the mean |
What is the range of a data set? | the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution |
What does the standard deviation tell us? | how much scores vary around the mean score; how much scores deviate (differ) from one another |
What is an outlier? | an extreme observation/scores that will skew a normal distribution; a higher one results in a positive skew while a lower one results in a negative skew |
According to the 67/95/99 rule, what percent of the data in a bell-shaped distribution will be within 1 standard deviation of the mean? | 67% |
According to the 67/95/99 rule, what percent of the data in a bell-shaped distribution will be within 2 standard deviations of the mean? | 95% |
According to the 67/95/99 rule, what percent of the data in a bell-shaped distribution will be within 3 standard deviations of the mean? | 99% |
What type of distribution occurs when there are two frequently occurring scores? | bimodal distribution |
What are the key attributes of critical thinking? | humility, skepticism, and curiosity |
What is the term for an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events? | theory |
What is the term for a testable prediction, often implied by a theory? | hypothesis |
What is the term for a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study? | operational definition |
Who are the scientific experts that evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy? | peer reviewers |
What is a neutral stimulus? | A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning |
What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (US) | A stimulus that unconditionally, naturally and automatically, triggers an unconditioned response |
What is an Unconditioned Response? | An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus |
What is a Conditioned Stimulus? | An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response |
What is a Conditioned Response? | A learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus |
What is acquisition in classical conditioning? | The initial stage; when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response |
What is Extinction in classical conditioning? | The diminishing of a conditioned response; when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus |
What is extinction in operant conditioning? | The diminishing of a conditioned response; when a response is no longer reinforced |
How does extinction occur in classical conditioning? | When the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus |
What is spontaneous recovery? | The reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response |
What is generalization in classical conditioning? | The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
What is generalization in operant conditioning? | When responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations |
What is higher ordered learning (chaining)? | A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one association is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus. The more links that are created in the chain, the weaker the response becomes |
What is stimulus discrimination? | The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
What is a cue? | An event that signals for another event to occur |
What is meant by consequence? | Any external response to a voluntary behavior, it can either be punishing or rewarding in nature |
What is a reinforcer? | Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
What is a punisher? | Any event that reduces/weakens the behavior it follows |
What is positive reinforcement? | Adding a pleasant event/stimulus in response to a behavior; is rewarding and will increase that behavior |
What is a negative reinforcement? | Removing an unpleasant event/stimulus in response to a behavior; is rewarding and will increase that behavior |
What is a positive punishment? | Adding an unpleasant event/stimulus in response to a behavior; is dissatisfying and will decrease that behavior |
What is a negative punishment? | Removing a pleasant event/stimulus in response to a behavior; is dissatisfying and will decrease that behavior |
What are primary reinforcers? | Innately reinforcing stimuli, such as those that satisfy biological needs. For example, ice cream, physical affection, removal/dulling of pain |
What are secondary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers)? | Stimuli that gain their reinforcing power through their association with primary reinforcers. For example, money, good grades, approving words, likes on social media |
What is acquisition in operant conditioning? | The strengthening of a reinforced response |
What is shaping? | An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
How does extinction occur in operant conditioning? | When a response is no longer reinforced |
What is generalization in operant conditioning? | When responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations |
What is discrimination in operant conditioning? | The ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced |
What is escape learning? | A type of learning in which an organism learns to engage in a behavior that decreases or ends some negative, aversive stimulation |
What is avoidance learning? | A type of learning in which an organism learns to engage in a behavior that prevents some negative, aversive stimulus from occurring |
What is learned helplessness? | A type of learning in which an organism begins to believe, due to repeated failure, that there is no way to escape or avoid a specific negative, aversive stimulus; the result is hopelessness and passive resignation |
What is continuous reinforcement? | Reinforcing the desired response every single time it occurs |
What are the behavior patterns when on a continuous schedule? | Learning occurs rapidly, but extinction also occurs rapidly |
What is partial (intermittent) reinforcement? | Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement |
What is meant by saying intermittent reinforcement is more resistant to extinction? | The reinforced behavior will persist for far longer even after the reinforcement has gradually ceased; like slot machines |
What is fixed ratio schedule? | Reinforcement occurs after a specified, set number of responses |
What are some examples of the fixed ratio reinforcement schedule? | Coffee shops reward a free cup of coffee for every ten cups purchased |
What is the behavior pattern seen with the fixed ratio reinforcement schedule? | Once conditioned, individuals will pause only briefly after a reinforcer before returning to a high rate of responding |
What is Variable ratio? | Reinforcement occurs after a unpredictable number of responses |
What are some examples of the variable ratio reinforcement schedule? | Slot machine gambling |
What is the behavior pattern seen with the variable ratio reinforcement schedule? | Because reinforces increase as the number of responses increase, this schedule yields a high response rate |
What is fixed interval? | Reinforcement occurs only after a specified, set amount of time has elapsed |
What are some examples of the fixed interval reinforcement schedule? | Checking the mail for your Amazon package more frequently as it gets closer to the time that its supposed to be delivered |
What is the behavior pattern seen with the fixed interval reinforcement schedule? | Individuals on this type of reinforcement schedule tend to respond more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near |
What is variable interval? | Reinforcement occurs only after an unpredictable, changing amount of time has elapsed |
What are some examples of the variable interval reinforcement schedule? | Constantly checking your phone for a text message from your crush/significant other about your date tonight |
What is the behavior pattern seen with the variable interval reinforcement schedule? | Slow, steady responding |
What is fixed duration? | Reinforcement occurs only when the desired behavior has been performed continuously for a fixed, predictable period of time |
What are some examples of the fixed duration reinforcement schedule? | Only being able to watch TV after first studying for two hours |
What is variable duration? | Reinforcement occurs only when the desired behavior has been performed continuously for a unpredictable, varying period of time; the period of time typically varies on some average |
Which reinforcement schedule is most resistant to extinction? | Variable ratio |
What is punishment? | An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows |
What are the five drawbacks of physical punishment listed in the book? | 1) Behavior suppressed, not forgotten. 2) Does not replace unwanted behavior. 3) Teaches negative discrimination among situations. 4) Teaches fear. 5) Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence as a way to cope with problems |
What are the essential things to remember when punishing? | 1) Must be consistent. 2) Must warn beforehand that the behavior is punishable. 3) Must be immediate. 4) Punishment must fit the behavior. 5) Must NOT be excessive. 6) Must explain wrongdoing. 7) Must provide an example of the model/desired behavior |
What are natural punishers? | The natural consequences of actions. For example, grabbing a hot pan without oven mitts and immediately getting burned |
What are third party punishers? | When someone else explicitly punishes you. For example, your parent putting soap in your mouth for cursing |
Which is more effective, third party punishers or natural punishers, and why? | Natural punishers are more effective |