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Cog Psych FINAL EXAM
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is an algorithm? | An often complex rule or procedure that always produces the correct answer if followed correctly (a set of steps and a plan) LONGER AND EFFORTFUL E.g., Solving a mathematical equation, following a sequence to find cat or dog, playing a game of chess |
| What is the availability heuristic? | a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision |
| example of availability heuristic | What kills people more (Car accidents or Strokes)? We would say car accident because we hear about car accident killing people more often than Strokes. Even though, Strokes kills people more. |
| What is the representativeness heuristic? | a mental shortcut that we use when estimating probabilities. When we're trying to assess how likely a certain event is, we often make our decision by assessing how similar it is to an existing mental prototype. |
| example of representativeness heuristic | Birth Order: There is no order you can count on when predicting how many boys or girls you will have (they are all likely) Coin Toss: Heads and Tails both have an equal chance of coming up. **both are random process |
| What is functional fixedness? | Functional fixedness is a type of cognitive bias that involves a tendency to see objects as only working in a particular way. For example, you might view a thumbtack as something that can only be used to hold paper to a cork-board. |
| What is a negative/mental set? | negative set: a tendency to solve a problem in one particular way even when a different approach may be better; getting stuck on one way of solving things |
| Luchin's jug experiment and how it illustrates a negative set | - participants developed a particular approach for measuring quantities (1-5 use B-2C-A, 6 use A-C) - exposure to 1-5 leads people to use more complex solution to 6 (80% of the time, 1% for control group) |
| What is insight? | A deep, useful understanding of the nature of a difficult problem |
| Example of insight | someone with an anxiety disorder preventing them from leaving the house and socialising with friends may have very good insight, meaning they recognise their fear is irrational and prohibitive – even while they struggle to manage it. |
| What is executive functioning? | Executive functioning is the mental processes that enables us to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and juggle multiple tasks successfully. |
| Tasks that can be used to measure executive functioning | mental flexibility, verbal fluency, planning, working memory, and inhibitory control. |
| Four possible ways to measure the problem solving activities of a participant in a problem solving experiment | Verbal protocols during problem solving… Verbalize your thought process out loud Time from problem onset to solution Solution outcome -> Correct/incorrect Post problem solving questionnaires examining insight and strategies used |
| What is the behaviorist approach in relation to problem solving? | Correct solutions are reinforced; Incorrect solutions are punished. Due to random variation, you produce slightly better versions; these are reinforced, so you’re more likely to do them again. |
| Potential shortcomings in explaining problem solving from a behaviorist view | it suggests behaviours are learnt through associations made with environmental stimuli and/or the response that we get (reinforcement). |
| How does the behaviorist approach differ from the gestalt approach? | Both Gestalt and behaviorism accepted the study of consciousness. However, Gestalt did not believe that consciousness could be analyzed into mental elements whereas behaviorism accepted the possibility of analyzing consciousness into part processes. |
| Describe the gestalt approach | Gestalt theory emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. That is, the attributes of the whole are not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation |
| What aspect of problem solving does gestalt theory fail to theorize or inform us about? | PROBLEMS: says little about non-"aha" problems or how you get to the change in representation, simple solutions sometimes not used |
| Early animal studies in gestalt approach | Kohler's chimp -> banana from ceiling and stacking crates, connecting poles together to make longer pole to reach banana outside cage |
| How might analogy lead to improved problem solving? Give example of an experiment that demonstrates this effect | features and structures help the more similar the analogy is to the problem the better it helps solve -ex. radiation of tumor hit small frequencies at multiple angles to kill tumor, attack at different entrances |
| What does/doesn't make experts better at solving problems than non-experts? | - general conclusion: experts probably don't solve problems differently than you, they just know more than you do |
| How might damage in different regions of the frontal lobes differentially impact different functions? | - damage alters ability to make good decisions and future decisions (prefrontal cortex) - also damage effects motor function (in motor strip) |
| what else (besides damage) could potentially result in executive dysfunction? | - executive dysfunction: inability to make good decisions - planning and risky behavior - children with bad sleep lack executive function |
| Iowa Gambling Task | - choose 100 cards from 4 decks (2 decks are low gain/low loss, 2 decks are high gain/high loss) - healthy control group participants shifted from high risk decks to low risk decks |
| Results from Iowa Gambling Task | - GSR indicated increased emotion when thinking of choosing from riskier decks in healthy group - PFC group participants chose indiscriminately and went bankrupt relatively quickly - GSR relatively flat in PFC group |
| Problems that people with 'frontal lobe syndrome' have other than in decision making | - insensitive to future consequences of behavior, only look at immediate consequences - drug and alcohol use - at-risk populations: homeless, low-SES children and adolescents, sleep-disordered children, poor mental health |
| Reflection 10 (decision making) | - Bernoulli's formula (expected value) = odds of gain x value of gain - estimating odds (availability heuristic, ex: dogs vs pigs on leashes) - estimating values (shifting comparisons of past experiences to future decisions) |
| BROCA"S AREA | - frontal left lobe - responsible for speech production & language processing |
| WERNICKE'S AREA | - temporal left lobe - responsible for language comprehension |
| HM | - cut out medial temporal lobes - could not form any new memories, could form procedural memories (how to do certain things) but did not know why (no conscious memory) - example of anterograde amnesia |
| GAZZANIGA | split-brain patient cut corpus callosum to stop seizures (lateralization is the idea that each hemisphere works with the other to make one brain) |
| PHINEAS GAGE | - metal rod went through pre-frontal cortex and personality changed - learned that personality is located in the frontal lobe |
| Neuron communication | - chemical substances released into the synapse between 2 neuron (AT of one to dendrite) - neurotransmitter activates receptors on postsynaptic cell threshold: voltage that opens "gates" on neuron making it positive (needs enough excitatory messages) |
| How neuron communication is disrupted in Alzheimer's disease | amyloid plaques: bundles of cellular garbage that blocks the synapse and block ability to send messages leading to neuron dying; neurofibrillary tangles: neuron structure, fibers that make up neurons become tangled causing death of neuron |
| fMRI | - reliant on where blood is going - neurovascular coupling tells us where there is an increase in blood flow by where oxygen is being metabolized in the brain - good spatial resolution |
| PET | - inject radioactive glucose tracer into blood stream, particles used to measure blood flow patterns as neural activity is elicited - good spatial recognition with location of tracker - looks for what part of brain is using blood at time when testing |
| EEG | - high-temporal resolution - measures voltage changes under scalp (event-related potentials aka ERPs in brain, voltage triggered by cognitive events that is measured in EEG) - do not know exactly where in the brain it is occurring |
| misconceptions in fMRI research | neurovascular coupling: the idea that the area of the brain that is metabolizing oxygen is where neural activity is taking place; fMRI is relative effect because it lacks external validity and is always used in comparison to something. |
| Decay theory | information/memories simply decay and disappear over time, fade from your memory |
| Interference theory | memories fade because of new memories that replace them |
| Working memory | Emphasis on storage and processing, Mental workbench, focus on attentional control |
| short term memory | Emphasis on storage, focus on capacity and recall process |
| Know the difference between STM and WM, as well as the three components to Baddeley’s WM model. | STM only holds onto memory for a few seconds, part of WM Working memory involves manipulating and storing the information Baddeley’s WM model: Phonological loop Episodic buffer Visuo-spatial sketchpad |
| Know the two main memory system consolidation theories discussed in class, including their similarities and differences. | Standard consolidation theory : More often you recall memories, the more often they go to different parts of the brain Multiple trace theory : More often you recall a memory, the more traces you have from hippocampus |
| Know the difference between deep and shallow encoding, and some examples of each. | We remember better when we process things more meaningfully Deeper means remembering things more meaningful |
| Know the encoding specificity principle and be capable of discussing a study that supported it. | The theory that retrieval cues will only be successful in accessing a memory trace if they contain some of the same items of information which were stored with the original trace.; Tulving, scuba diver study |
| Implicit memory | Memory whose influence can be detected by some indirect test of task performance, but which the subject is unable to report deliberately and consciously (contrasts with explicit memory). |
| Explicit memory | Memory which a subject is able to report consciously and deliberately (contrasts with implicit memory) |
| Semantic memory | Memory for general knowledge, such as the meanings associated with particular words and shapes, without reference to any specific contextual episode (contrasts with episodic memory). |
| Procedural memory | Memory which can be demonstrated by performing some skilled procedure such as a motor task, but which the subject is not necessarily able to report consciously (contrasts with declarative memory). - muscle memory |
| Episodic memory | Memory for specific episodes and events from personal experience, occurring in a particular context of time and place (contrasts with semantic memory). |
| Understand the two stories from “The man who mistook his wife for a hat” that we read, and what disorders they represent (be able to justify this in relation to other, similar, disorders). | Wife Hat thing: Unable to recognize anything visually: agnosia Lost mariner: korsakoff's because of alcohol abuse, couldn’t form new memories: anterograde amnesia |
| Know how we can study infant memory, and three different theories or reasons behind infantile amnesia. | Friedman study: habituation and novelty preference Mobile ribbon study Memory system not developed yet Biological factors - medial temporal lobe not fully developed Retrieval effect - no motivation to reactivate memories |
| Alzheimer brain | Brain loses ⅓ of volume Between plaques and tangles, it’s too much for brain to handle Diagnosis for alzheimer’s is always probable No good way to treat it |
| Early stage of alzheimer's | Mild cognitive impairment Problems with testing or questioning “Normal forgetfulness” at the beginning |
| Middle stage of alzheimer's | Impairment requires needing help with daily activities Extensive care Personality changes may occur |
| Late stage of alzheimer's | Loss of ability to respond to environment Communication minimal Movement - sedentary, no walking |
| Dementia with Lewy Bodies | Mostly visual problems: visual hallucinations that repeat, visuospatial difficulties Mood problems Associated with parkinsons Fluctuating cognition |
| Frontotemporal Dementia | Can start in frontal lobe or temporal lobe: Frontal = weird behavioral changes, personality impairment Temporal = memory difficulties for words and language Show symptoms before age 65 because protein “tao” starts to decline |
| Vascular Dementia | Various small repeated strokes Kills more and more brain cells over time Treatment - stop the strokes? |
| Bartlett’s War of Ghosts study | People fill in cognitive gaps if information learned does not make sense Subjects remembered distorted version of the story to make it make more sense to them because the story itself didn’t make much sense |
| Know what a flashbulb memory is, and how it does/does not differ from a ‘normal’ memory. | Flashbulb memory = subjects memory of what they were doing when a big event happened Usually people remember where they were during the event, but the memory of the event itself is not stronger than any other memory |
| Know the three different methods of testing false memories, and how they work. | DRM Procedure: Word associated with sweet, remembered false memory of hearing the word sweet Misinformation false memories: Give people questions after the fact Rich false memories --> Plant seed: ask if they remember information that didn't happen |
| Know what happens to the attention system in times of increased arousal. | Easterbrook’s Hypothesis: The notion that high levels of arousal or anxiety cause a narrowing of attention. “Tunnel vision” - attention system zeros in the more stressed out we are Makes it easy to forget additional/background/detailed information |
| What is a phoneme? | sounds, smallest unit of sound Hat has three phonemes, h a and t |
| What is a morpheme? | smallest meaningful unit, free or bound Incoming has three morphemes, in come and ing |
| What is a lexical decision task? | An experiment in which participants are given a target item, and asked to decide whether it is a real word or not. Lexical decision tasks are used as the amount of time taken to give a response can indicate how the target item is being processed. |
| Describe three types of natural animal communication (in the wild), and whether they qualify as language according to the requirements discussed. | A finite number of calls Communicating the magnitude of some event A series of random variations on a theme |
| How does the communication system that Kanzi was trained on differ from hand gestures? Does this system seem to qualify as a language? | Kanzi learned a lexigram (visual-graphic symbols that represent nouns) Not a language because he only learned semantics, not syntax |
| Do animals have language? Do you find that you side with most psycholinguists (like Chomsky and Pinker) or with Sue Savage-Rambaugh, and why? | No, because language needs syntax, semantics, flexibility of symbols displacement, and productivity Animals can only learn semantics, 1 of 5 of the components of language |
| How did Chomsky differ with Skinner in their views of how a child acquires language? | said behaviorists were limited because they couldn’t explain the complexity of language, said humans had the innate ability cognitive to learn language, it’s not something completely learned but rather an ability within the brain --Language innate |
| How did Skinner differ with Chomsky in their views of how a child acquires language? | Father of behaviorism, Operant Conditioning --Language taught through conditioning |
| How is an infant’s phoneme perception different from an adult’s? | Comprehension outweighs production Kids can understand more than they can speak |
| What is motherese? How do infants react to it? Is it necessary/helpful for language acquisition? | Baby talk Not necessary or helpful but infants like it |
| What have cases of serious child neglect illustrated about a possible critical period in language? | Genie: Found in LA @age 14 ,Isolated since 20 months, Could never learn language much Isabelle: Found at age 6, Intact language functioning learned in one year, She didn’t miss the critical person to learn language |
| Broca's aphasia | Impairment = production of speech Use single words, not much grammar Deficit = syntax |
| Wernicke's aphasia | Impairment = comprehension of speech Deficit = semantics Word soup Use of neologisms |
| Global aphasia | Unable to produce and understand speech |
| Transcortical motor aphasia | Similar to Broca’s but the patient’s repetitions skills are intact. |
| Transcortical Sensory Aphasia | Similar to Wernicke’s or receptive aphasia, except repetition is preserved. |
| Isolation Aphasia | Mixed transcortical aphasia, only repetition is preserved |
| Anomic Aphasia | (E.g, anomia) Associated with a problem in naming objects. Can be caused either by a lesion involving the pathways which connect the concept centre to the expressive speech center. |
| Agraphia | disruption in writing |
| Alexia | Disruption in reading |
| Phonagnosia | not being able to recognize someone by their voice |
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courtspencer
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