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Ch. 13, 14, 12 Vocab
based on textbook
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| personality | an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting |
| psychodynamic theories | theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experiences |
| psychoanalysis | Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions |
| unconscious (according to Freud) | a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. |
| unconscious (according to contemporary psychologists) | information processing of which we are unaware |
| free association | in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing |
| id | a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives |
| ego | the partly conscious, "executive" part of personality that mediates among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality |
| superego | the partly conscious part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience) and for future aspirations |
| pleasure principle | the principle the id operates on, which demands immediate gratification |
| reality principle | the principle the ego operates on, which satisfies the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain |
| psychosexual stages | the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones |
| oral stage | psychosexual stage that occurs within the first 18 months of life and in which pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing) |
| anal | psychosexual stage that occurs between the first 18 to 36 months of life and in which pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; involves coping with demands for control |
| phallic | psychosexual stage that occurs between 3 to 6 years of age and in which the pleasure zone is the genitals; involves coping with incestuous sexual feelings |
| latency | psychosexual stage that occurs from the age of 6 to puberty; it is a phase of dormant sexual feelings |
| genital | psychosexual stage that occurs from puberty onward and which involves the maturation of sexual interests |
| Oedipus complex | according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealously and hatred for the rival father |
| Electra complex | according to Freud, a girl's sexual desires toward her father and feelings of jealously and hatred for the rival mother |
| identification | according to Freud, the process by which children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos |
| fixation | in psychoanalytic theory, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved |
| defense mechanisms | in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality |
| repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
| collective unconscious | Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history |
| regression | retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixed, with the unconscious goal of avoiding anxiety-arousing thoughts or feelings |
| reaction formation | switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites in an unconscious effort to avoid anxiety-arousing thoughts and feelings |
| projection | disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others in an unconscious attempt to avoid anxiety-arousing thoughts and feelings |
| rationalization | offering self-justifying explanations in the place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions; employed with the unconscious goal of avoiding anxiety-arousing thoughts and feelings |
| displacement | shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person; employed with the unconscious goal of avoiding anxiety-arousing thoughts and feelings |
| denial | refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities; employed in an unconscious effort to avoid anxiety-arousing thoughts and feelings |
| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) | a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes |
| projective test | a personality test, such as the TAT or Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics |
| Rorschach inkblot test | a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots |
| humanistic theories | theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth |
| hierarchy of needs | Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before people can fulfill their higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs |
| self-actualization | according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential |
| self-transcendence | according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self |
| unconditional positive regard | a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance |
| self-concept | all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" |
| trait | a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports |
| personality inventory | a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits |
| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) | the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests; originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes |
| empirically derived test | a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups |
| Big Five factors (the five-factor model) | researchers identified five factors - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism - that describe personality |
| social-cognitive perspective | a view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context |
| reciprocal determinism | the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment |
| self | in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions |
| spotlight effect | overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us) |
| self-esteem | our feelings of high or low self-worth |
| self-efficacy | our sense of competence and effectiveness |
| self-serving bias | a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably |
| narcissism | excessive self-love and self-absorption |
| individualism | a cultural pattern that emphasizes people's own goals over group goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personality attributes |
| collectivism | a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one's extended family or work group) |
| psychological disorder | a syndrome marked by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior |
| medical model | the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital |
| epigenetics | "above" or "in addition to" genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change) |
| DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition) | from the American Psychiatric Association; is a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders |
| anxiety disorders | psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety |
| generalized anxiety disorder | an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal |
| panic disorder | an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations; often followed by worry over a possible next attack |
| specific phobia | an anxiety disorder marked by persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation |
| obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) | a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both |
| posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) | a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hypervigilance, avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for 4 weeks or more after a traumatic experience |
| somatic symptom disorder | a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause |
| illness anxiety disorder | a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease (formerly called hypochondriasis) |
| major depressive disorder | a disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drug use or a medical condition, 2 or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure |
| bipolar disorders | a group of disorders in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania (formerly called manic-depressive disorder) |
| mania | a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgment is common |
| rumination | compulsive fretting; overthinking our problems and their causes |
| schizophrenia | a disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression |
| psychotic disorders | a group of disorders marked by irrational ideas, distorted perceptions, and a loss of contact with reality |
| delusion | a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders |
| chronic schizophrenia (process schizophrenia) | a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood; as people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten |
| acute schizophrenia (reactive schizophrenia) | a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to a traumatic event, and from which recovery is much more likely |
| dissociative disorders | controversial, rare disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings |
| dissociative identity disorder (DID) | a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating identities (formerly called multiple personality disorder) |
| personality disorders | inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning |
| antisocial personality disorder | a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even towards friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist |
| anorexia nervosa | an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight, and has an inaccurate self-perception; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise |
| bulimia nervosa | an eating disorder in which a person's binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) is followed by inappropriate weight-loss-promoting behavior, such as vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise |
| binge-eating disorder | significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory behavior that marks bulimia nervosa |
| neurodevelopmental disorders | central nervous system abnormalities (usually in the brain) that start in childhood and alter thinking and behavior (as in intellectual limitations or a psychological disorder) |
| intellectual disability | a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or below and difficulty adapting to the demands of life (formerly referred to as mental retardation) |
| autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by limitations in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixed interests and repetitive behaviors |
| attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity |
| social psychology | the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another |
| attribution theory | the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition |
| fundamental attribution error | the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition |
| attitude | feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events |
| foot-in-the-door phenomenon | the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request |
| role | a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave |
| cognitive dissonance theory | the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent |
| peripheral route persuasion | occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness |
| central route persuasion | occurs when interested people's thinking is influenced by considering events and arguments |
| norms | understood rules for accepted and expected behavior; they prescribe "proper" behavior |
| culture | the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
| tight culture | places with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms |
| loose culture | places with flexible and informal norms |
| conformity | adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard |
| normative social influence | influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval |
| informational social influence | influence resulting from a person's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality |
| social facilitation | in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks |
| social loafing | the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable |
| deindividuation | the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in the group situations that foster arousal and anonymity |
| group polarization | the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group |
| groupthink | the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives |
| prejudice | an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members; generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action |
| stereotype | a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people |
| discrimination | unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members |
| just-world phenomenon | the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get |
| ingroup | "us" - people with whom we share a common identity |
| outgroup | "them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup |
| ingroup bias | the tendency to favor our own group |
| scapegoat theory | the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame |
| other-race effect (cross-race effect. own-race bias) | the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races |
| aggression | any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally |
| frustration-aggression principle | the principle of frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression |
| social script | a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations |
| mere exposure effect | the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them |
| passionate love | an aroused state of intense positive absorption in one another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship |
| companionate love | the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined |
| equity | a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it |
| self-disclosure | the act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others |
| altruism | unselfish regard for the welfare of others |
| bystander effect | the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present |
| social exchange theory | the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs |
| reciprocity norm | an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them |
| social-responsibility norm | an expectation that people will help those needing their help |
| conflict | a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas |
| social trap | a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior |
| mirror-image perceptions | mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive |
| self-fulfilling prophecy | a belief that leads to its own fulfillment |
| superordinate goals | shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation |
| Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction (GRIT) | a strategy designed to decrease international tensions |
Created by:
ccons
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