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AP Psychology

AP Psychology: Final Exam Review

Question	Answer
(PET) Positron emission tomography scan	A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
absolute threshold	minimal amount of energy required to produce any sensation, 50 percent of the time
Accommodation	in the theories of Jean Piaget: the modification of internal representations in order to accommodate a changing knowledge of reality
achievement test	a test designed to assess what a person has learned.
acquisition	in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
action potential	a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
active listening	empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy.
addiction	compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.
Adolescence	the time period between the beginning of puberty and adulthood
adolescence	the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independenceid
Adrenal glands	a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
Aggression	physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.
aggression	violent action that is hostile and usually unprovoked
Agonist	A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.
Agoraphobia	Anxiety disorder, Fear of being in public
Albert Bandura	pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
Alfred Binet	the indvidual that published the first measure of intelligence in 1905. The purpose of his intelligence test was to correctly place students on academic tracks in the French school system.
all-or-nothing response	a neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing.
alpha waves	the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
Altruism	unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
alzheimers disease	an irreversible, progressive brain disorder, characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning
Amos Tversky	A key figure in the discovery of systematic human cognitive bias
amphetamines	drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
Amygdala	2Lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion. Includes rage and fear.
anorexia nervosa	an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 337)
Antagonists	Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.
anterograde amnesia	an inability to form new memories.
antianxiety drugs	drugs used to control anxiety and agitation
antidepressant drugs	drugs used to treat depression; also increasingly prescribed for anxiety. Different types work by altering the availability of various neurotransmitters
antipsychotic drugs	drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder
Antisocial Personality Disorder	A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist
Anxiety Disorders	Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. Includes: Generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia
Applied research	Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
aptitude test	a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.
Assimilation	the process of assimilating new ideas into an existing cognitive structure
association areas	areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
associative learning	learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning
Attachment	The strong bond (social-emotional) a child forms with his or her primary caregiver.
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)	A psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of these key symptoms: Extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
Attitude	feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
Attribution Theory	the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.
audtition	The sense of hearing.
Autism	a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind
automatic processing	unconscious encoding of the incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.
Autonomic nervous system	the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. It's sympathetic system arouses and parasympathetic calms.
aversive conditioning	a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).
axon	the neuron extension that passes and electrical messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
barbiturates	drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.
basal metabolic rate	the body's resting rate of energy expenditure. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 335)
Basic research	Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
Basic Trust	according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
basilar membrane	A membrane inside the cochlea which vibrates in response to sound and whose vibrations lead to activity in the auditory pathways.
behavior genetics	the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
behavior therapy	therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.
Behavioral psychology	The scientific study of observable behavior, and it's explanation by principles of learning.
Behaviorism	The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologist today agree with one but not two.
binge-eating disorder	significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 337)
binocular cues	visual messages/cues that require two eyes (retinal disparity, convergence)
biological psychologists	the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.
Biological psychology	The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.
biomedical therapy	prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient's nervous system.
Biopsychological approach	An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social - cultural levels of analysis.
Bipolar and related disorders	Disorders characterized by extreme mood changes, includes bipolar disorder
Bipolar Disorder	A bipolar and related disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depressing and the overexcited state of mania
blind spot	place on the retina out where the optic nerve leaves the eye, no receptors (rods/cones) are located here
Body Dysmorphic Disorder	An obsessive-compulsive disorder, characterized by an obsession with perceived flaw(s) in physical appearance.
Borderline personality disorder	A personality disorder characterized by fear of abandonment, unstable intense relationships, rapid changes in self-identity, impulsive and risky behavior, suicidal threats, and wide mood swings.
bottom-up processing	Starts with basic sensory information; transduction
Brainstem	the oldest part and central core of brain. AKA reticular formation, or reticular activating system. In charge of automatic survival functions
bulimia nervosa	an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 337)
Bystander Effect	the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.
Cannon-Bard theory	the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.
Carol Gilligan	Moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg.
She studied girls and women and found that they scored different on Kohlberg's scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles.	Carol Gilligan
Case Study	An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Central nervous system (CNS)	the brain and the spinal cord
Central Route Persuasion	attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.
Cerebellum	"little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions including processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.
Cerebral cortex	Fabric of interconnected neuron cells. Higher order thinking. Takes meaning and puts it to focus. The body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
change blindness	failing to notice changes in the environment.
Charles Spearman	theorist who proposed that intelligence consisted of both general intelligence, ability to do complex work like problem solve and intelligence which included specific mental abilities, ability to do verbal or math skills
chromosomes	threadlike structure made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
chunking	organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
circadian rhythm	the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
classical conditioning	a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
client-centered therapy	a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.)
Clinical psychology	A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
cochlea	A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tude in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.
cochlear implant	a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve by electrodes threaded into the cochlea
cognition	all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Cognition	the psychological result of perception and learning and reasoning
Cognitive Dissonance Theory	Thoughts that go against beliefs and make us uncomfortable
cognitive map	a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. (For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it)
Cognitive Neuroscience	The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition. (including perception, thinking, memory and language.)
Cognitive psychology	The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
cognitive therapy	therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.
cognitive-behavioral therapy	a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior).
collective unconscious	Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.
collectivism	giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.
Color constancy	Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wave-lengths reflected by the object
Companionate Love	the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
Concrete Operational Stage	the third of Piaget's stages, when a child understands conversation but still is incapable of abstract thought
conditioned reinforcer	a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforce; also known as a secondary reinforce
conditioned response (CR)	in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
conditioned stimulus (CS)	in classical conditioned, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response
conduction hearing loss	Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
cones	visual receptor cells; located in retina; works best in bright light; responsible for viewing color; greatest density in the fovea
Conflict	a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
Conformity	adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Confounding Variable	a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
consciousness	our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Consciousness	our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Conservation	the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
content validity	the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks).
continuous reinforcement	reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Control Group	in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
convergence	binoculars cue; visual depth cue; muscles controlling eye movement as the eyes turned inward to view a nearby stimulus
convergent thinking	a type of thinking that is not associated with creativity - seeing one solution to a problem
Corpus Callosum	Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Correlation Coefficient	a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Correlation	A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1
Counseling psychology	A branch of psychology that assist people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well - being.
counterconditioning	a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.
Critical Period	an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
Critical Thinking	thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
cross-sectional study	a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
crystallized intelligence	one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
CT (computed tomography) scan	a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representaion of a slice through the body. Aslo called a CAT scan
Culture	the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Daniel Kahneman	an Israeli psychologist and Nobel laureate, who is notable for his work on the psychology of judgment and decision-making, behavioral economics and hedonistic psychology.
David Hubel - Torsten Wiesel	discovered feature detector groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual images
David Wechsler	Worked with troubled kids, and after observing these children, he created tests to measure more than verbal ability.
Debriefing	the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
deep processing	encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
defense mechanisms	in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
Deindividuation	the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
deja vu	the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
delta waves	the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
Delusions	False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
dendrites	the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
denial	psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.
Dependent personality disorder	A personality disorder characterized by difficulty making everyday decisions, needing others to assume responsibility, difficulty expressing disagreement, difficulty initiating projects, need for support from others.
Dependent Variables	The outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
depressants	drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
Depressive disorders	Psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes includes depressive disorder, disruptive mood dysregulation disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder.
Depth perception	Ability to see objects in three dimension although the image that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
Developmental Psychology	a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Developmental psychology	A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.
Diathesis stress model	In order for an onset of a disorder an individual needs both the genetic and stressor
difference threshold	Just Noticeable Difference (JND); the smallest change in stimulation that you can detect 50% of the time; differs from one person to the other (and from moment to moment); tells us the flexibility of sensory systems
discrimination	in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
Discrimination	unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.
discriminative stimulus	in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
displacement	psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder	a depressive disorder characterisized by extreme temper outbursts at least 3 times a week, must be under 18.
dissociation	a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.
Dissociative Amnesia	A dissociative disorder characterized by a loss of memory for who you are, fugue state includes traveling far from home and the loss of memory
Dissociative Disorders	Disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings
Dissociative Identity Disorders (DID)	A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Symptoms includes blackouts. Formerly called multiple personalities disorder.
divergent thinking	a type of thinking that is associated with creativity - seeing lots of solutions to a problem
Double Blind Procedure	An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Down syndrome	a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup.
dream	a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
drive-reduction theory	the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 329)
drive	an aroused, motivated state
DSM 5	The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Edition, a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.
Dual Processing	a phenomenon can occur in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes, The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
echoic memory	a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled for about 3 or 4 seconds.
eclectic approach	an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy.
Ecstacy (MDMA)	a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
Educational psychology	The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.
effortful processing	encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
ego	mediator of the mind, reconciles id and superego
Egocentrism	In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.
Electra Complex	The unconscious desire of girls to replace their mother and win their father's romantic love.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)	An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
eletroconvulsive therapy (ECT)	a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
Embryo	stage in prenatal development from 2 to 8 weeks
emerging adulthood	For some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to early twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood
Emotion	A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.
emotional intelligence	the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.
empirically derived test	a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.
Empiricism	The view that knowledge orientates in experience and that science should therefore rely on observation and experimentation.
encoding	the processing of information into the memory system.
Endocrine system	the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
endorphins	"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
environment	every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us, Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
epigenetics	The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.
Equity	a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
Erik Erikson	neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
estrogens	sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity
evidence-based practice	clinical decision-making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences.
Evolutionary psychology	The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection.
Experiment	A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).
Experimental Group	in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Experimental psychology	The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.
explicit memory	memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."
exposure therapy	behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid.
external locus of control	the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate.
extinction	the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when a unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant condition when a response is no longer reinforced
Extrasensory perception (ESP)	Controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
extrinsic motivation	a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
facial feedback effect	the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.
factor analysis	a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score.
family therapy	therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.
feature detectors	nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.
Fetal alcohol syndrome	a medical condition in which body deformation or facial development or mental ability of a fetus is impaired because the mother drank alcohol while pregnant
Fetus	the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
fixation	according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage in which conflicts were unresolved.
fixed-interval schedule	in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
fixed-ratio schedule	in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
flashbulb memory	a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
fluid intelligence	one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
Flynn effect	The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations
fMRI (functional MRI)	A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon	the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
Formal Operational Stage	in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
fovea	The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
fraternal twins (dizygotic)	twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; no genetically closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
free association	in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.
Frequency theory	In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.
frequency	The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).
Frontal Lobes	the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.
Frustration-Aggression Principle	the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression.
Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder	A rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found
Functionalism	Early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and Flourish.
Fundamental Attribution Error	the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
Gate-control theory	The spinal cord contains a "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. It's opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in large fibers or information coming from the brain.
gender identity	our sense of being male or female
gender role	the overt expression of attitudes that indicate to others the degree of your maleness or femaleness
gender typing	the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Gender	in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.
general adaptation syndrome	Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
general intelligence (g)	a general intelligence factor that according to Spearman and others underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.
generalization	the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit responses
Generalized Anxiety Disorder	An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. Free floating anxiety (chronic anxiety not associated with any specific situation or object.
genes	the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
genome	the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
ghrelin	secreted by empty stomach, sends hunger signals to brain
Glial Cells	Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
glucose	the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 333)
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction (GRIT)	Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction—a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.
Group Polarization	the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.
Groupthink	the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
Habituation	a general accommodation to unchanging environmental conditions (pic is Piaget)
habituation	an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
hallucinations	false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
hallucinogens	psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
Harry Harlow	development, contact/creature comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort
health psychology	a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.
heritability	the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; this may vary depending on population range and the environment being studied
Herman von Helmholtz	Theorist who both aided in the development of the trichromatic theory of color perception and Place theory of pitch perception.
hierarchy of needs	Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 330)
higher-order conditioning	A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).
Hindsight Bias	The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
hippocampus	a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
Hippocampus	Limbic system. Learning and memory matcher.
Histrionic personality disorder	A personality disorder characterized by being uncomfortable in situations which he/she is not the center of attention, inappropriate sexual seductiveness, the use of physical appearance to draw attention, self-dramatization
Hoarding disorder	An obsessive-compulsive disorder, characterized by difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of the value
homeostasis	a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 329)
Hormones	chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Howard Gardner	Harvard researcher that has identified at least eight types of intelligences
hue	color, or aspects of colors
Human factors psychology	And I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.
Humanistic psychology	A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people.
hypnosis	a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
hypothalamus	A neural structure lying below the thalamus, it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Hypothesis	a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
iconic memory	a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.
id	a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
identical twins (monozygotic)	twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
identification	the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos.
identity	the individual characteristics by which a thing or person is recognized or known
Illness Anxiety Disorder	A somatoform disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as a symptom of a disease
Illusory Correlation	The perception of a relationship where none exists
implicit memory	retention independent of conscious recollection.
imprinting	the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period
inattentional blindness	failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
incentive	a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 329)
Independent Variable	The experimental factor that is manipulated--the variable whose effect is being studied
individualism	giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.
Industrial - organizational (I/O) psychology	The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.
Inferential Statistics	numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance
Informational Social Influence	influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.
Informed Consent	an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Ingroup Bias	the tendency to favor our own group.
Ingroup	"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.
inner ear	The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
insight therapy	a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client's awareness of underlying motives and defenses.
insight	a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
insomnia	recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
instinct	a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 328)
insulin	secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose
intellectual disability	(formerly referred to as mental retardation) a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound
intelligence quotient (IQ)	defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
intelligence test	a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.
intelligence	mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Intensity	The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.
interaction	the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
internal locus of control	the perception that one controls one's own fate.
interneurons	neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
interpretation	in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight.
intimacy	a usually secretive or illicit sexual relationship
intrinsic motivation	a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
iris	A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.
James Flynn	Known for his discovery of the Flynn effect, which is the rise in average IQ scores year after year, all over the year.
James Randi	magician exemplifies skepticism. He has tested and debunked a variety of psychic phenomena
James-Lange theory	the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.
Jean Piaget	Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation
Just-World Phenomenon	the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
Kenneth and Mamie Clark	Used dolls to study children's attitude towards race. Their findings were used in the Brown vs. Board trial.
kinesthesis	sense of muscle movement, posture, and strain on muscles/joints; provides information on speed and direction of movement; works with vestibular sense
Kipling Williams	studied ostracism, discovered social ostracism
Konrad Lorenz	researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting; Lorenz' Geese
L.L. Thurstone	proposed that intelligence consisted of 7 different primary mental abilities
latent content	according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).
latent learning	learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
law of effect	Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by faborable consequences become more like, that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Lawrence Kohlberg	moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions
learned helplessness	the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
learning	a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
Lens	transparent part of the eye behind the iris; focuses light on the retina
leptin	secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
Lesion	tissue destruction. It can occur naturally or experimentally by the caused distruction/remove of brain tissues
Lev Vygotsky	child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research
Lewis Terman	professor at Stanford who revised the Binet test for Americans. The test then became the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. He is also known for his longitudinal research on gifted kids.
Limbic system	A system of neural structures at the border of brainstem. Associated with emotions like fear, agression, and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the Hippocampus, Amygdala and hypothalamus.
lobotomy	a now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain
long-term memory	the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills, and experience.
long-term potentiation	an increase in a synapses' firing potential after brief, rapids stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
longitudal study	Research in which the same people are restudies and retested over a long period
LSD	a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).
lymphocytes	The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes
Major Depressive Disorder	A deoressuve disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities
Mania	A symptom of bipolar characterized by elevated mood, overtalkative, overactive, little need for sleep, risky behavior
manifest content	according to Freud, the story of the dream.
Mark Leary	self esteem is a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel; much of social behavior aims to increase our belonging
Mark Rosenzweig	demonstrated the consequences for being raised in an impoverished to enriched, complex environment
Mary Ainsworth	developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment
Masters and Johnson	studied physiological responses of sexual intercourse
Maturation	the internally programmed growth of a child
Mean	The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median	The middle score in a distribution--half the scores are above it and half are below it
Medical Model	The concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital
Medulla	The base of the brainstem. Controls heartbeat and breathing.
memory	the persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information.
menarche	the first occurrence of menstruation in a woman
menopause	the time in a woman's life in which the menstrual cycle ends
mental age	a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.
mental retardation	a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound.
Mere Exposure Effect	the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.
meta-analysis	a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.
methamphetamines	a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.
middle ear	The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (Hammer, Anvil, and Stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations (conduction) of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.
mild mental retardation	Mentally retarded individuals with an IQ range of 50-69. The largest percentage of retarded people is in this group. Adults have the mental ability of about 8-12 year olds. They can learn basic skills in school are sometimes classified as educable.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)	the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
mirror neurons	frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation and empath
Mirror-Image Perceptions	mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.
misinformation effect	incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
mnemonics	memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Mode	The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
modeling	the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
moderate mental retardation	Mentally retarded individuals with an IQ range 35-49. They can learn simple tasks, therefore are sometimes classified as trainable.
molecular geneticists	subfield of biology that study the molecular structure and function of genes
monocular cues	depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.
mood-congruent memory	the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
motivation	a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
motor (efferant) neurons	neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
motor cortex	an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)	a TECHNIQUE THAT USES MAGNETIC FIELDS AND RADIO WAVES TO PRODUCE COMPUTER generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissues.
mutations	A random error in gene replication that leads to a change
myelin sheath	a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
Narcissistic personality disorder	a mental health condition in which people have an unreasonably high sense of their own importance
narcolepsy	a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
natural selection	the principle that, among range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Natural selection	The principle that, among the range of inherited traits variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
Naturalistic Observation	Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Nature - nurture issue	The long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
near-death experiences	an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.
negative reinforcement	increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforce is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (negative reinforcement is not punishment)
Negative symtoms	symptoms of schizophrenia which include loss of appropriate behavior: flat affect, catonic state, alogia, avolition
nerves	bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
nervous system	the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
Neurogenesis	Formation of new neurons
neuron	a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
neurotransmitters	chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
night terrors	a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, these occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.
Norm	an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior.
Normal Curve/distribution	a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes
normal curve	the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
Normative Social Influence	influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
norming	the third stage of team development, in which team members begin to settle into their roles, group cohesion grows, and positive team norms develop
NREM sleep	non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.
obestatin	secreted by stomach, sends full signals to brain
Object Permanence	the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
observational learning	learning by observing others (also social learning)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)	An obsessive-compulsive disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)
Obsessive-Compulsive Related Disorders	Disorders that include obsessive thoughts and/or unwanted behavior. Includes: obsessive-compulsive disorder, hoarding disorder, body dysmorphic disorder.
Occipital lobes	the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual info from the opposite visual feild.
Oedipus complex	according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.
olfaction sense	sense of smell
operant behavior	behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
operant chamber	in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforce; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
operant conditioning	a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished followed by a punisher
Operational Definition	A statement of the procedures used to define research variables. Ex human intelligence -- what an intelligence test measures.
opiates	opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
opponent process theory	The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green Christmas, yellow-blue Michigan, white-black) enable color vision.
opponent-process theory	created by Edward Hering; alternative theory used to explain after images; suggest that the retina contains three pairs color receptors or cones-yellow-blue, red-green, black-white; pairs work in opposition (thalamus)
optic nerve	bundle of axons from ganglion cells that carries messages from the eye to the brain
orexin	hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalmus
ostracism	elicits brain activity in anterior cingulate cortex that activates in response to physical pain; we experience social pain with the same emotional unpleasantness that marks physical pain
Other-Race Effect	the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias
Outgroup	"Them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.
Panic Disorder	An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations
parallel processing	the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.
Paranoid personality disorder	A personality disorder characterized by suspicions that others are deceiving him/her, preoccupied with doubts of others trustworthiness, reluctance in confiding in others, holding grudges
Parapsychology	Study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
Parasympathetic nervous system	the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (Your PARents come home and calm you down)
Parietal lobes	The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex. Receives sensory input for touch and body position.
partial (intermittent) reinforcement	reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Passionate Love	an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.
Passive-aggressive personality	A personality disorder characterized by avoiding responsibility by claiming forgetfulness, being inefficient on purpose, blaming others, complaining, feeling resentment, fear of authority
perception	the mental process of sorting, identifying, and arranging raw sensory data into meaningful patterns
perceptual accommodation	in perception, the ability to adjust to an idea or mind set
Perceptual adaptation	In vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
perceptual consistancy	perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.
Perceptual set	A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)	the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
Peripheral Route Persuasion	attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.
personal control	our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless.
Personal Space	the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies.
Personality Disorders	Psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
personality inventory	a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
Personality psychology	The study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
personality	an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Phi phenomenon	Illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
Phobia	An anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation
physical dependence	a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.
pitch	auditory experience corresponding to the frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher or lower tone
Pituitary gland	"THE MASTER GLAND" the endocrine system's most influential gland
under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands	Pituitary gland
place theory	brain determines pitch by the place on the basilar membrane, works best for high pitch
Place theory	In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.
Placebo Effect	any effect that seems to be a consequence of administering a placebo
Placebo	experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Plasticity	The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
polygraph	a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).
Pons	sleep and arousal
Population	all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
Positive psychology	The scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
positive psychology	the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.
positive reinforcement	increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforce in any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Positive symptoms	symptoms of schizophrenia which include addition of inappropriate behavior: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and inappropriate actions
Post-Traumatic Growth	Positive psychological chances as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)	A trauma-related dsiorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that linger four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
posthypnotic suggestion	a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.
predictive validity	the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.)
Prejudice	an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
Preoperational Stage	the second stage in Piaget's theory, marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language
primary reinforce	an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Primary Sex Characteristics	the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
priming	the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception.
proactive interference	the disruptive effect of old information on new information.
profound mental retardation	Mentally retarded individuals with an IQ range below 20 that show almost no response to their environment.
projection	psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
projective test	a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics.
prosocial behavior	positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
Psychiatry	A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical for example drug treatments as well as psychological therapy.
psychoactive drug	a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.
psychoanalysis	Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist's interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
Psychodynamic psychology	A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.
psychodynamic therapy	therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight.
psychological dependence	a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.
Psychological Disorder	Deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thought, feelings, or behaviors
Psychology	The science of behavior and mental processes.
Psychometrics	The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
psychoneuroimmunology	the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.
psychopharmacology	the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior
psychophysics	The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.
psychophysiological illness	literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.
psychosexual stages	the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.
psychosurgery	surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior
psychotherapy	treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.
Puberty	the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
punishment	an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
pupil	small opening in the center of the iris
PYY	digestive tract hormone; sends I'm not hungry signals to brain
Random Assignment	Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance ,thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
Random Sampling	A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Range	the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
rationalization	defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions.
reaction formation	psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.
recall	a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
reciprocal determinism	the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors.
Reciprocity Norm	an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
recognition	a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.
Reflexes	simple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli, such as the knee-jerk response
refractory period	a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.
regression toward the mean	the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.
regression	psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.
reinforce	in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
relearning	a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when leaning material for a second time.
reliability	the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep	rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
REM rebound	the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)	the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity
Replication	Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
repression	in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
resilience	the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma
resistance	in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.
respondent behavior	behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Reticular Formation	Plays an important role in controlling arousal.
retina	the light-sensitive inner lining of the back of the eyeball; contains receptor cells (rods/cones)
retinal disparity	binocular distance cue; based on the overlay of two retinal fields when both eyes focus on one object
retreival	the process of getting formation out of memory.
retroactive interference	the disruptive effect of new information on old information.
retrograde amnesia	an inability to retrieve information from one's past.
reuptake	a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.
Robert Sternberg	Sternberg proposed a triarchic theory of intelligence
rods	visual receptor cell; located in retina; respond to varying degrees of light and dark; responsible for night vision and peripheral vision
Role	a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
role	a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
Rorschach inkblot test	the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
Sample	items selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population
savant syndrome	a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.
Scapegoat Theory	the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.
Scatter plot	A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
Schema	In observational learning, a generalized idea that captures the important components, but not every exact detail. Pertaining to memory and person perception, a generalized idea about objects, people, and events that are encountered frequently.
Schizophrenia	characterized by a disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions
Secondary Sex Characteristics	Physical features that are associated with gender but that are not directly involved in reproduction.
selective attention	The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, like the cocktail effect (notice your name in a crowd)
Self Concept	a sense of one's identity and personal worth
Self Fulfilling Prophecy	a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
self-actualization	according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.
self-concept	all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
Self-Disclosure	revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.
self-esteem	one's feelings of high or low self-worth
self-serving bias	a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
self	in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.
sensation	the raw data of experience; sensory stimulation; example are eyes only register light energy and ears only register wave energy
Sensorimotor Stage	the first stage in Piaget's theory, during which the child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli
sensorineural hearing loss	Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.
sensory (afferent) neurons	neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
sensory adaptation	Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Sensory interaction	The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.
sensory memory	the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
serial position effect	our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
set point	the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. (Myers Psychology for AP 1e p. 335)
severe mental retardation	Mentally retarded individuals with an IQ range of 20-34. they score no better on IQ tests than a two or three year old.
sexual orientation	an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex, to other sex, or both sexes
shallow processing	encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
shaping	an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
short-term memory	activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing.
signal detection theory	States that circumstances, experiences, expectations affect our thresholds
size constancy	the perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed; example someone height
sleep apnea	a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
sleep	periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)
Social - cultural psychology	The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.
Social Anxiety Disorder	Anxiety disorder. Persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations.
social clock	the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Social Exchange Theory	the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
Social Facilitation	stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.
social identity	the "we" aspect of out self concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group membership
Social Learning theory	Bandura's view of human development; emphasizes interaction
social learning theory	the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Social Loafing	the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
Social psychology	The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Social Psychology	the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Social Trap	a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
social-cognitive perspective	views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context.
Social-Responsibility Norm	an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.
Somatic nervous system	the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (skeletal nervous system)
Somatoform Disorder	Psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause, includes functional neurological symptom disorder and illness anxiety disorder
somatosensory cortex	the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
source amnesia	attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
spacing effect	the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.
Split Brain	A conditioning resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them.
spontaneous recovery	the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
spotlight effect	overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).
Standard Deviations	A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
standardization	defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested standardization group.
Stanford-Binet	the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.
Statistical Significance	A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
stereotype threat	a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
Stereotype	a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
stimulants	drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
storage	the retention of encoded information over time.
Stranger Anxiety	the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
stress	The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
Structuralism	Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener;used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.
sublimation	psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities.
subliminal perception	Sensory information that is detected without our conscious knowledge
superego	the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.
Superordinate Goals	shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.
Survey	A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them
Sympathetic nervous system	the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (If you get scared)
synapse	the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
systematic desensitization	a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
tardive dyskinesia	involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target certain dopamine receptors
taste buds	groups of cells located on the tongue that enable one to recognize different tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salt)
temperament	a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
Temperament	individuals characteritc manner of behavior or reaction assumed to have a strong genetic basis
Temporal lobes	The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughyl above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which revieves aditory info primarily from the opposite end.
tend and befriend response	under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).
teratogens	agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
terror-management theory	proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death.
testing effect	enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
Testing effect	Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test - enhanced learning.
Testosterone	a potent androgenic hormone produced chiefly by the testes
testosterone	the most important of the male sex hormones. both males and females have it but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty.
Thalamus	the brains 'sensory switch board' Located at top of brainstem; directs messages to the sensory areas and transmits them to cerebellum and medulla.
THC	the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)	a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
Theory of Mind	an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own
Theory	an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
threshold	the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
token economy	an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.
tolerance	the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.
top-down processing	Constructing perceptions based on our experiences and expectations
trait	a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.
transduction	Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses.
transference	in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).
transgender	an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs form that associated with their birth sex
triarchic theory	theory proposed by Robert Sternberg that states that intelligence consists of three parts: analytic, creative, and practical
two-factor theory	the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
Type A personality	Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
Type B personality	Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people.
unconditional positive regard	a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.
unconditioned response (UR)	in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
unconditioned stimulus (US)	in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response
unconscious	according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
validity	the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.)
variable-interval schedule	in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
variable-ratio schedule	in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
vestibular sense	The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.
virtual reality exposure therapy	An anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.
Visual cliff	Laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
wavelength	The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from longer/red, shorter/blue
Weber's law	Ernst Weber; the principle that accounts for how one notices the difference threshold for any change must be proportional
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)	the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.
William Stern	He invented the concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ)
withdrawal	the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.
working memory	a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information.
X chromosome	the sex chromosome that is present in both sexes: singly in males and doubly in females
Y Chromosome	the sex chromosome that is carried by men
Yerkes-Dodson law	the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory	created by Hermann von Helmholtz; theory of color vision based on additive color mixing; suggest that the retina contains three types of color receptors, cones: red, green, blue
Zygote	a fertilized egg

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