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PSYCH 100 EXAM 2
Learning, Memory, States of Consciousness, Nature and Nurture
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Learning | relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience; active engagement with the world |
| Classical Conditioning | learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipated events |
| Ivan Pavlov | Experiment demonstrated classical conditioning; teaching dogs to salivate at the ring of a bell |
| Acquisistion | when a neutral and conditioned stimulus link so that the neutral stimuli starts to trigger the conditioned response |
| Neutral Stimulus | stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning |
| Conditioned Stimulus | a once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus |
| Unconditioned Stimulus | stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response |
| Conditioned Response | response following a previously neutral stimulus after conditioning; Neutral stimulus + Unconditioned stimulus = Conditioned Response |
| Unconditioned Response | unlearned/naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus |
| Extinction | diminishing of a conditioned response that occurs when an unconditioned stimulus no longer follows a conditioned stimulus; end of an association |
| Spontaneous Recovery | extinguished conditioned response reappears after some time |
| Stimulus Generalization | after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original can produce the same response |
| John Watson | Little Albert experiment; most fears are learned/conditioned |
| Little Albert Experiment | when the baby would reach for a rat the experimenters would bang a metal pipe scaring the child, baby became scared of everything white and fuzzy |
| Before Conditioning: Pavlov | food elicits natural response of salvation as unconditioned stimulus/ response; bell elicits no response on its own as a neutral stimulus |
| During Conditioning: Pavlov | Bell+ food = unconditioned response of salvation |
| After Conditioning: Pavlov | Bell elicits salvation becoming a conditioned stimulus/response |
| Stimulus Discrimination | when two stimuli are distinct enough from each other that only one evokes a conditioned response |
| Operant Conditioning | learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened/weakened depending on its favorable/unfavorable consequences |
| Edward Thorndike | Cat-in-a-box experiment; cat is left trapped in a box and needs to figure out that it needs to press a lever to escape and get food; law of effect |
| Law of Effect | responses that produce a satisfying affect in a particular situation will be repeated next time that particular situation arises |
| B.F. Skinner | Identifies ways operant conditioning shapes behavior |
| Positive Punishment | addition of unfavorable stimulus to decrease unwanted behavior; add yelling to stop a child from drawing on the walls |
| Negative Punishment | removal of favorable stimulus to decrease unwanted behavior; removal of phone when you break curfew |
| Positive Reinforcement | addition of a favorable stimulus to increase wanted behavior; addition of money if you get good grades |
| Negative Reinforcement | removal of an unfavorable stimulus to increase wanted behavior; removal of beeping if you put your seatbelt on in a car |
| Primary Reinforcer | unlearned/innate reinforced stimulus; basic needs like food and shelter |
| Secondary Reinforcer | gains power through association with primary reinforcer; money |
| Immediate Reinforcement | quickly applied stimulus after behavior; feeling satisfied after a meal |
| Delayed Reinforcement | a long length of time passed between behavior and reward; earning your degree |
| Fixed Ratio | every so many; every 4th person that walks through the door gets $20 |
| Fixed Interval | every so often; every Tuesday I buy Starbucks |
| Variable Ratio | after any number; you don't know how many times you must play to win a slot machine |
| Variable Interval | after unknown time; you don't know when someone will text you back |
| Punishment is | frequently ineffective at changing behavior because it does not teach alternative/desired behavior |
| Behaviorist Model of Therapy | uses classical and operant conditioning to change behavior; maladaptive behaviors are the result of failure to learn adaptive behaviors/ result of learning maladaptive ones |
| Aversive Conditioning | train negative associations with unwanted behavior; use of nauseating drugs to stay away from alcohol |
| Encoding | recording of information |
| Storage | saving information for further use |
| Retrieval | recovery of stored information |
| Sensory Memory | holds immediate/fleeting/brief information in raw form so it can be encoded; holds up to 9 pieces of information |
| Iconic Memory | where visual information is processed; lasts 2-3 seconds |
| Echoic Memory | where auditory information is processed; can disappear in less than 1 second |
| Roger Sperling | flashed letters and numbers on a screen and asked participants to write down what they could remember; participants knew they had seen more but couldn't remember what; time it takes to produce remembered items is long enough to make the others fade |
| Short-Term/ Working Memory | holds abt. 7 items for 15-25 seconds; system that focuses on conscious and active processing of important incoming sensory information as well as retrieving informations from long term storage |
| Chunk | a group of separate pieces of fleeting information stored as a single unit in ST Memory |
| Rehearsal | active pairing of new sensory information with information from long term storage |
| Mnemonics | the study and development of systems for improving and assisting the memory. |
| Bennet Murdock | serial position effect; order of words effect which ones you remember |
| Primacy Effect | remembering words at the start of a list |
| Recency Effect | remembering words at the end of a list |
| Central Executive | first stop in working memory |
| Visuospatial Sketchpad | where central executive sends visual information |
| Episodic Buffer | where central executive sends information on sense of time and order of events |
| Phonological Loop | where central executive sends spoken and written material |
| Long-Term Memory | relatively permanent and limitless storage made up of knowledge, skills, and experiences; one way entry through st memory |
| Declarative Memory | explicit/factual/conscious |
| Procedural Memory | implicit/skills/muscle memory |
| Semantic Memory | derives from declarative memory; general knowledge |
| Episodic Memory | derives from declarative memory; autobiographical knowledge |
| Automatic Processing | encodes routine details to allow mind to focus on conscious experience |
| Long-Term Potentiation | certain neural pathways are easily excited while new information is being learned |
| Consolidation | memories becoming fixed and stable in lt memory |
| Recall | multistep process of generating information from an earlier experience |
| Recognition | single step process of identifying information from earlier experience |
| Ebbinghous | increasing rehearsal time causes a decrease in relearning time; proved we recognize better than recall |
| Encoding Failure | failure of recording information or not paying attention to material; occurs between short and long term memory |
| Storage Decay | loss of information from long term memory through lack of use |
| Retrieval Failure | fading of cue-dependant memories; occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information |
| Proactive Interference | previous learned behavior outweighs recently learned behaviors |
| Retroactive Interference | Recently learned behavior outweighs previously learned behaviors |
| Consciousness | our awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings at any given moment |
| Waking Consciousness | state of being awake and aware of our thoughts, emotions and perceptions |
| Altered States of Consciousness | all non-waking states |
| Circadian Rhythm | biological clock that regulates regular body rhythms on approximately a 24-hour cycle; effected by age, genetics, culture and experiences |
| Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | controls circadian rhythm in part via regulating pineal gland production of melatonin; riced sized brain grains in hypothalamus |
| Sleep | periodic, natural loss of consciousness - distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation |
| NREM-1 | first stage of sleep; fastest wave patterns; lasts about 90 minutes; more frequent later in the night |
| NREM-2 | second stage of sleep; wave patterns slow down; lasts about 90 minutes; more frequent later in the night; used to strengthen neural connections |
| NREM-3 | third stage of sleep; slowest wave patterns; lasts about 90 minutes; more frequent earlier in the night; synonymous with deep sleep |
| REM | fourth stage of sleep; faster wave patterns; lasts about 90 minutes; spend more time in this stage later in the night and when you are sleep deprived |
| REM sleep is characterized by | rapid eye movement; increase in heart rate/blood pressure/breathing; vivid and memorable dreams; paralyzation; ` |
| Evolutionary Theory | lack of nocturnal abilities so sleeping keeps us safe and conserves energy |
| Neurological effects of sleep | helps restore and repair neurons; in stage 2 and REM neural connections are strengthened building enduring memories |
| Biological effects of sleep | physical growth is activated during deep/stage 3 sleep; pituitary gland secretes a growth hormone necessary for muscle development |
| Cognitive ability | this increases with deep sleep promoting creative problem solving |
| Costs of sleep loss | Cognitive (brain functions at lower levels); Psychological (sleep debt predicts depression); Physiological (causes weight gain and suppresses immune cells) |
| Rebound Effect | when you are sleep deprived you spend more time in REM stage of sleep when you next go to sleep tp make up for lost time; unrestricted sleep experiments by US Navy and NIH |
| Naps | period in the day when you sleep 20-90 minutes; only effective for natural nappers |
| Insomnia | issues falling and/or staying asleep; more common in women/those with low BMI/elderly/depressed people |
| Narcolepsy | sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks; lapse directly into REM |
| Sleep Apnea | not breathing while asleep; associated with obesity, especially in men |
| Night Terrors | high arousal and appearance of fear; occurs in stage 3; more common in children |
| Sleep walking/talking | occurs during stage 3; more common in children |
| Parasomnia | sleep paralysis; occurs right when you fall asleep or right when you wake up |
| Dreams | sequences of images/emotions/thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind; if you are frequently exposed to something you are likely to dream about it; sensory stimuli can be incorporated into our dreams; everyone dreams even if you don't realize it |
| Bad Dreams | nightmares are not the same as night terrors; occur in REM; relive traumatic/anxious events to understand them; PTSD causes and increase in frequency and intensity of nightmares |
| Dreams-Survival Theory | dreams permit us to reconsider and process information that is critical for daily survival; based in an evolutionary perspective; content represents everyday concerns |
| Wish Fulfillment Theory | Sigmund Freud; manifested content represent unconscious wishes (latent content) that the dreamer desires to see fulfilled |
| Activation Synthesis Theory | brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep stimulation stored memories; updated version AIM says dreams initiate pons which send random signals to the cortex |
| Hypnosis | trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to suggestions of others; do not perform anti-social/self destructive behaviors; helps control pain, treat psych. disorders, increase athletic performance; cannot be performed alone |
| Hypnosis steps | 1) person is made comfortable in a quiet environment 2)hypnotist explains what is going to happen 3)person concentrates of a specific object/image 4)hypnotist makes suggestions that person then interprets |
| Meditation | learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness; repetition of mantra/focus on something; meditator becomes unaware of outside stimuli |
| Meditation long term results | decrease of carbon dioxide; reduced heart rate/blood pressure; change in brain wave patterns |
| Pre-Scientific Notion of Inheritance | selective breeding |
| Linnaeus | Taxonomy: categorization of plants by reproductive organs; believed reproduction was significant |
| Lamarck | Theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics: organisms adapt to their environment and then pass those adaptations down to their offspring |
| Lyell | Uniformitarianism: idea that the earth was shaped by the same scientific processes that continue today |
| Charles Darwin | 5 principles of evolution by natural selection; goal of evolution is to pass on genes by surviving and reproducing |
| 5 Principles of Evolution | variation;survival and reproduction; fitness; heritability; adaptation |
| Jukes Family | earliest systematic processing of genealogical traits |
| Gregor Mendel | first modern theory of inheritance; looked at pattern of inheritance in pea pods but did not count for environmental factors |
| Genotype | inherited genetic material |
| Endophenotype | mediate pathways; intermediate phenotype |
| Phenotype | observable expression of genotype |
| Environment | everything beyond genetics; all experiences even pre-natal |
| Chromosome | rod shaped structure that contains genes; 23 pairs or 46 total |
| Gene | biochemical unit of heredity consisting of DNA |
| Regulator Genes | control activity of other genes; can be influenced by external factors |
| Allele | 2 or more different forms of a gene; homozygous vs heterozygous |
| Homozygous | 2 dominant/ 2 recessive |
| Heterozygous | 1 dominant and 1 recessive |
| Epigenetics | study of molecular mechanisms by which environments can trigger/block genetic expression |
| Norm Reaction | phenotype if the unique consequence of a particular genotype developing in a particular environment |
| PKU | defective gene where child cannot metabolize a certain chemical; environment poisons child causing brain damage |
| Behavioral Genetics | the study of the relative power of genetic and environment on behavior; twin/adoption studies and DNA testing |
| Twins | Identical: monozygotic and share 100% of DNA Fraternal: dizygotic and share 50% of DNA |
| Heritability | statistical estimate of the proportion of a variance of a trait in a given population; attributed to genetic differences of individuals in the population |
| IQ Example of Heritability | genetics impacted 50% of distribution of IQ in the population; genetics does NOT impact 50% of a person's IQ |
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smccaughan
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