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General Psych Exam 3
Dr. Carskadon @ MSU
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| learning | the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information and/or behaviors |
| behaviorism | the view advocated by the eminent early psychologist John B. Watson, that psychology should be an objective science the studies directly observable behavior without any necessity to consider internal mental processes |
| John B. Watson | early psychologist that came up with the view of behaviorism |
| associative learning | learning that certain events occur together |
| Ivan Pavlov | studied classical conditioning and did an experiment with dogs |
| classical conditioning | a kind of learning in which a subject learns to associate one stimulus with another stimulus that is followed by a certain event, such that the subject learns to anticipate that event and respond to the first stimulus as if it were the second stimulus |
| unconditioned stimulus | a stimulus that naturally brings about a response you are looking at, without any learning having to take place |
| unconditioned response | a naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, a response that does not require learning in order to take place |
| neutral stimulus | a stimulus that does not initially bring about the response you are interested in |
| conditioned stimulus | an originally neutral stimulus that, after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus, takes on the ability to bring about the response that originally followed the unconditioned stimulus |
| conditioned response | a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has now become the conditioned stimulus |
| conditioned | not natural, not built-in, not automatic; something that would only happen if learning had occurred |
| acquisition | the initial learning of a stimulus-response relationship in which a neutral stimulus is linked to an unconditioned stimulus, and it becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of bringing a conditioned response that is the same as the unconditioned response |
| extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response; when an unconditioned stimulus, no longer follows the conditioned stimulus until the conditioned response no longer appears |
| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a pause in which there has been no training |
| generalization | following the establishment of a conditioned response, the tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to bring about about similar responses |
| discrimination | the learned ability to tell the difference between the conditioned stimulus that will be followed by the unconditioned stimulus, and other, similar stimuli that will not be followed by the unconditioned stimulus |
| cognitions | internal thought processes |
| Watson and Rayner | studied fear and did the Little Albert experiment |
| operant conditioning | a type of learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened if it is followed by reinforcement and diminished if it is punished or not followed by reinforcement |
| reinforcement | some form of reward |
| respondent behavior | behavior that occurs automatically in response to certain stimuli; observed in classical conditioning |
| operant behavior mature | voluntary behavior that operates on the environment to produce either rewarding or punishing consequences |
| B. F. Skinner | studied operant conditioning and behavior and did an experiment with a pigeon in an operant chamber |
| Thorndike's Law of Effect | behaviors that are followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by negative consequences become less likely |
| skinner box or operant chamber | an isolated cage or chamber in which a subject can do something in order to get a reward, while a mechanical device records and counts the subject's responses |
| shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal |
| reinforcer | any event that strengthens (makes more probable, more frequent) the behavior it follows; some kind of reward, usually |
| primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a built-in biological need; requires no learning in order to be rewarding |
| secondary reinforcer or conditioned reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; the subject has to learn to associate with a primary reinforcer |
| positive reinforcement | strengthens a response by adding a positive stimulus after that response, increases the probability that the subject will repeat the response that preceded it |
| negative reinforcement | strengthens a response by removing a negative, aversive, unpleasant stimulus after the response |
| terminal goal | the target behavior, the last response the subject makes in a chain of learned behaviors; once achieved, the conditioning process is finished, must be defined in objectively measurable terms |
| baseline behavior | the behavior patterns of the subject before training begins |
| reinforcing successive approximations to the goal | rewarding any slight behavioral change that is a step in the right direction, until you reach the terminal goal; steps in the wrong direction are not reinforced |
| immediate reinforcer or immediate reinforcement or immediate gratification | a reinforcer or reward that is given immediately after a behavior is done or a task is completed, makes the behavior more likely to be repeated |
| delayed reinforcer or delayed reinforcement or delayed gratification | a reinforcer or reward that is not given until a period of time after a behavior is done or a task is completed, really only works with mature persons |
| schedules of reinforcement | patterns of when and how often reinforcement will occur |
| continuous reinforcement or a continuous schedule of reinforcement | reward a subject every time they do the response, leads to the quickest learning but may become impractical |
| partial reinforcement or intermittent reinforcement | don't reward a subject every time, only part of the time; it is harder to establish a response but makes it more resistant to extinction |
| fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement | don't reward after every correct response, instead, reward after every certain number; that ratio is fixed and doesn't change |
| variable ratio schedule of reinforcement | reward after a random number of correct responses, but it averages out to be a certain number |
| fixed interval schedule of reinforcement | let a certain amount of time pass and then reward the first correct response after that time |
| variable interval schedule reinforcement | reward the correct response at about an average time so any time could get the subject a payoff |
| punishment | an event that decreases the behavior that it follows |
| positive punishment | adding an aversive stimulus (usually after undesirable behavior) |
| negative punishment | removing a pleasant stimulus (usually after undesirable behavior) |
| extrinsic motivation | doing something to get an external reward or avoid an internal punishment |
| intrinsic motivation | doing something for its own sake, because it is an inherently good and/or satisfying thing to do |
| observational learning | learning by observing others |
| Albert Bandura | studied observational learning and did an experiment with a Bobo doll and children |
| vicarious learning and vicarious punishment | observing other people's rewards and punishments without experiencing them ourselves, but changing our behavior as a result of the rewards and punishments we see others receive |
| mirror neurons | neurons in the frontal lobes of the brain that may fire when we engage in certain actions and also when we observe other people doing so; may enable both imitation and empathy |
| antisocial behavior | actions that violate social norms in ways that reflect disregard for others or that reflect the violation of others' rights, usually stems from person feeling isolated and lonely |
| prosocial behavior | behavior that is good for other people or society in general |
| memory | the persistence of learning and representations of experiences over time, through the storage and retrieval of information |
| encoding | the processing of information into the memory system |
| storage | the retention, over time, of information encoded into memory |
| retrieval | the process of getting stored information back out of memory |
| three stages in the information processing model of memory | encoding, storage, retrieval |
| three stages in the traditional model of memory processing | sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory |
| sensory memory | the immediate and very brief initial recording of information in memory by the sense organs |
| iconic memory | visual sensory memory |
| echoic memory | auditory memory of sounds |
| short-term memory | memory of limited capacity that holds a few items briefly, before the information is either stored or forgotten |
| long-term memory | your relatively permanent store of memories, with virtually unlimited capacity |
| working memory | a new conceptualization of the classic three-stage model; an active processing of selected incoming information and also relevant information retrieved from long term memory on a temporary basis to work with and evaluate until its discarded or processed |
| effortful processing | encoding the requires conscious attention/effort/study |
| explicit or declarative memories | memory for facts and experiences that you can consciously recall and put into words |
| automatic processing | encoding routine information without conscious effort or attention, including such things as space, time, and frequency |
| implicit or non-declarative memories | retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection |
| Hermann Ebbinghaus | psychologist who, in the late 1500s, identified the number of things that help you make memories |
| serial position effect | the tendency to recall the first and last items in a list or series the best: immediately after learning, the last items tend to be recalled the best, but later on, the first items tend to be recalled the best |
| long-term potentiation | an increase in a neuron's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation |
| flashbulb memory | a clear, vivd memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
| amnesia | the loss of memory or the failure to remember an experience |
| retrograde amnesia | an inability to retrieve past information |
| anterograde amnesia | an inability to form new memories |
| recall | retrieving information that was learned earlier |
| recognition | identifying items that were previously learned |
| rapid relearning | learning something a second time faster than when the material was originally learned |
| three general causes of forgetting | failure to encode information (put it into memory), failure to store information (retain it in memory), failure to retrieve information (recall it from memory) |
| forgetting curve | when we learn something, we don't forget at an even rate; initially the rate is high, but it slows down or tapers off; discovered by Ebbinghaus |
| repression | Freud's term for motivated forgetting in which very uncomfortable thoughts, feelings, impulses, and/or memories are kept out of our conscious awareness |
| reconsolidation | a process in which previously stored long-term memories retrieved from storage may be changed before being returned to long-term memory storage |
| Elizabeth Loftus | psychologist who studied the misinformation effect and did experiments about traffic accident videos |
| misinformation effect | that misleading information can be incorporated into your memory for an event; in fact, that new inputs can significantly change old existing memories, without your awareness that your memories have been changed |
| source amnesia or source misattribution | when we attribute events we have experienced, heard or read about, or imagined, to the wrong source, such as believing that we actually experienced something that we only read about, heard about or imagined |
| rosy retrospection | the tendency to remember past events more positively than we actually evaluated or felt about them at the time we originally experienced them |
| unconditioned | natural, built-in, automatic, not requiring any learning in order to occur |
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