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Psy 101 Midterm 2

Starting at chapter 8

TermDefinition
cognition all of the mental activities associated with thinking, including knowing, remembering, solving problems, making judgements and decisions, and communicating
cognitive psychology the study of mental activities and how they operate
mental representations internal mental symbols that stand for some object, event or state of affairs in the world
concepts mental categories that group similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype best example or average member of the concept that incorporates more of the features most commonly associated with it
algorithms step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution
insight a sudden, conscious change in a person's understanding of some situation or problem
mental set a mental framework for how to solve a problem based on prior experience with similar problems
functional fixedness a tendency to focus on an object's typical functions and thus fail to recognize unusual functions that could solve a problem
restructuring the process of reorganizing one's understanding of a problem to facilitate a solution
bounded rationality the idea that rational decision making is constrained by limitations in people's cognitive abilities, available information, and time
dual-processing theories people have two types of thinking that they can use to make judgements and decisions; controlled system and automatic system
controlled system slower and more effortful and leads to more thoughtful and rational outcomes
automatic system fast and fairly effortless and leads to decent outcomes most of the time
heuristics mental shortcuts that people use to efficiently navigate everyday judgements and decisions
representativeness heuristic shortcut for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or be prototypical of some category
availability heuristic shortcut for deciding how frequent or probable something is based on how easily examples come to mind
affect heuristic tendency to use the affect we associate with various objects and events in the world to make judgements and decisions
confirmation bias tendency to look for and weigh evidence that confirms preexisting beliefs more strongly than evidence
belief perseverance tendency for people to resist changing their beliefs, even when faced with
framing the particular way that an issue, decision, or set of options is described can change decisions by shifting the decision maker's reference point
loss aversion tendency to make choices, including riskier ones, that minimize losses
overconfidence bias tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgements
hindsight bias the tendency, once the outcome is known, to overestimate the likelihood that they would have predicted that outcome in advance
language shared system of symbols, including spoken, written, and signed words and gestures, and a set of rules for how to combine those symbols to communicate meaning
phonemes smallest unit of language, such as the individual sounds that make up speech
morphemes smallest unit of meaningful language
grammar system of rules that governs the way that language parts are put together so that people can understand each other
syntax grammatical rules that govern how words and phrases combine into well-formed sentences
pragmatics rules that govern the practical aspect of language use, such as taking turns, using hand and face gestures, sarcasm, talking to children vs. elders, etc.
linguistic determinism hypothesis (Whorfian hypothesis) different languages impose different ways of understanding the world that can constrain and shape our thinking
babbling production of speech sounds by infants taking the form of consonant-vowel combinations (ma, ba) emerging around 6 to 7 months of age
over regularization errors a language error made by children that involves extending rules of word formation (runned, eated)
language acquisition device Noam Chomsky proposed that children are prewired to learn language, activated by language exposure and guides language learning automatically with no direct teaching necessary
sensitive period an early period in life where language acquisition can occur, but afterward, language acquisition will be limited
intelligence capability to think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, reason, plan, solve problems, learn from experience, and acquire new knowledge
factor analysis analyzes a pattern of correlations to look for the common factors, or ingredients underlying the scores
general intelligence (g factor) general mental ability that Charles Spearman hypothesized is required for virtually any mental test (consists of fluid and crystalized intelligence)
fluid intelligence (gF) ability to tackle new and unusual situations/problems
crystallized intelligence (gC) accumulated knowledge and skills
savant syndrome presence of unusual talents in people who are otherwise profoundly mentally disabled
analytical intelligence (sternberg) ability to break down problems into component parts of problem solving
creative intelligence (sternberg) ability to deal with new problems and generate innovative ideas and solutions
practical intelligence (sternberg) street smarts, ability to reason skillfully in day to day life
mental age number that represents the average age at which children perform closest to the given child's score on an intelligence test
intelligence quotient (IQ) measure of intelligence that is calculated by dividing child's mental age by chronological age and then multiplying 100
achievement tests determine how much you have learned over a certain period of time
aptitude tests designed to measure the potential to learn new skills
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) lengthy tests composed of subtests that assess general knowledge, vocabulary, comprehension, and are combined to capture overall ability or relative strengths and weaknessess
standardization process of making test scores more meaningful by defining them in relation to the performance of a pretested group
reliability extent to which a test produces consistent results
validity extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to do
stereotype threat a concern that one's performance or behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one's group
achievement gaps persistent differences in education outcomes of certain groups of people, usually based on characteristics like race or gender
motives forces that move us to act in certain ways and not others
instinct genetically endowed tendency to behave in a particular way
homeostasis body's tendency to maintain internal equilibrium through various forms of self regulation
drive a state of internal bodily tension, such as hunger or thirst or the need for sleep
pain matrix a distributed network of brain regions, including the amygdala, that respond to many types of pain
intrinsically rewarding being pursed for its own sake
extrinsically rewarding being pursued because of the rewards that are not an inherent part of the activity or object
glucostatic hypothesis hunger and eating are regulated by the body's monitoring and adjustment of blood glucose levels
lipostatic hypothesis adipose tissue plays an important role in governing hunger and regulating longer-term energy balance
adipose cells fat cells that absorb fatty acids created by the liver that can drain into blood stream to be converted into glucose
body weight set point the weight an organism will seek to maintain despite alterations in dietary intake
metabolic rate the rate at which the body uses its energy
unit bias the amount of food that is regarded as a single portion
anorexia nervosa eating disorder characterized by an extreme concern with being overweight and by compulsive dieting, sometimes to the point of self starvation
bulimia nervosa eating disorder characterized by repeated binge and purge bouts
body mass index (BMI) a measure of if someone is at a healthy weight or not, ones kilograms divided by the square of ones height in meters
thrifty gene hypothesis evolutionary hypothesis that natural selection has favored individuals with efficient metabolisms that maximize fat storage
estrus a mammal's period of sexual receptivity
neurodevelopmental perspective sexual orientation is built into the circuitry of the brain early in fetal development
performance orientation a motivational stance that focuses on performing well and looking smart (avoidance motivation)
mastery orientation characterized by a focus on learning and improving (approach motivation)
hierarchy of motives the order in which needs are though to become dominant; the lower order physiological motives are at the bottom, safety motives farther up, desire for is esteem higher, and self transcendence at the top
self actualization the desire to realize ones potential to the fullest
self transcendence desire to a further cause that goes beyond the self (such as truth, social justice, or religious faith)
emotion the coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes that occur when a situation becomes relevant to our personal goals
display rules cultural rules that govern the expression of emotion
discrete emotions approach focuses on defining specific categories of emotions
dimensional approach uses dimensions rather than categories to make sense of emotion
alexithymia people who have the greatest difficulty describing their emotional experiences
happiness set point the level of happiness that is characteristic of a certain individual
adaptation ability to quickly grow accustomed to any stimulus or state to which one is continually exposed
james-lange theory of emotion a theory that the subjective experience of emotion is the awareness of one's own bodily reactions in the presence of certain arousing stimuli
cannon-bard theory of emotion the theory that a stimulus elicits an emotion by triggering a particular response in the thalamus which then causes both the physiological changes associated with the emotion and the emotional experience itself
Schachter-singer theory of emotion the theory that emotion arises from the interpretation of bodily responses in the context of situational cues
empathy ability to accurately track what others are feeling
affect-as-information perspective the subjective experience of emotion is a key resource during problem solving / decision making
self control refers to the efforts we make to pursue our longer term interests when they conflict with momentary impulses
willpower ability to engage in self control
strength model of ego control engaging in self control efforts depletes a finite pool of cognitive resources, in just the same way using a muscle repeatedly tires it out
ego depletion state of diminished self regulatory ability due to repeated demands on cognitive resources required for self regulation
emotion regulation an attempt to modify one or more aspects of the emotion response trajectory
situation selection choosing to expose yourself to some situations and not others based in part on the emotional impact you expect the situation to have
situation modification changing one or more aspects of a situation you are in so it has a different emotional impact for you
attentional deployment changing your attentional focus
cognitive change modifying your thinking in order to change how you feel
response modulation changing one or more aspects of your emotional responses
reappraisal type of cognitive change that occurs when someone tries to decrease an emotional response by changing the meaning a situation has
suppression form of response modulation that occurs when someones tries to decrease the emotion he shows on his face or in his behavior
social psychology study of how social context as well as broader cultural environments influence people's thoughts, feelings, and actions
transference tendency to assume that a new and unfamiliar person has the same traits as another known person who they resemble in any way
impression management series of strategies people use to influence the impressions that others form of them
attribution assignment of a causal explanation for an event, action or outcome
fundamental attribution error (FAE) the tendency to assume that people's actions are more the result of their internal dispositions than of the situational context
false consensus effect tendency to use the self as an. anchor and overestimate the extent to which other people's beliefs and attitudes are similar to our own
self serving attributions we tend to make dispositional attributions for positive events but situational attributions for negative events
affective forecasting errors our estimations of future happiness are not very accurate, we overestimate the influence of some factors and underestimate the influence of others
attitude orientation toward target stimulus with 3 components; affective feeling ranging for positive to negative, cognitive belief about characteristics of target, and behavioral motivation such as tendency to approach or avoid that target
implicit attitudes automatically activated associations which are often learned through repeated exposure to a person, place, thing or issue
explicit attitudes what we explicitly report that we feel or believe about a person, place, thing, or issue
elaboration likelihood model theory of persuasion contending that attitudes can change by 2 different routes: central and peripheral route
central route relies on more thoughtful, reflective processes
peripheral route attitudes swayed by surface level features and more automatic associations
scarcity principle people tend to place higher value on things that are in short supply
door in the face strategy eliciting a bit of guilt after people decline an unreasonably large request so that they feel more open to a smaller one
cognitive dissonance when people find themselves behaving in ways that are out of line with their beliefs, values, or attitudes
social norms patterns of behavior, traditions, beliefs and preferences that are accepted and reinforced by others and influence our behavior
conformity people implicitly mimic or adopt the behaviors, beliefs and preferences of those around them
informational social influence pressure to conform to others actions or beliefs based on a desire to behave correctly or gain an accurate understanding of the world
social facilitation evidence that the mere presence of others can boost arousal in a way that facilitates the dominant response to that task
dominant response most likely behavioral reaction
social loafing tendency for individuals to expend less effort on a task when they are doing it with others rather than alone
group polarization tendency for people's attitudes on an issue to become more extreme after discussing it with like-minded others
groupthink occurs during group decisions when people feel pressure to maintain allegiance to a group leader or to render a difficult decision under time pressure
general aggression model framework that suggests that factors of both personality and the situation combine to alter one's affective, physiological and cognitive responses to a situation in ways that can increase aggressive behavior
weapons effect simple exposure to a gun or weapon can increase aggressive responses by bringing violent thoughts to mind
kin selection evovled or adapted strategy of assisting those who share one's genes, even at personal cost, as means of increasing the odds of genetic surival
norm of reciprocity people agree to help others who have helped them in the past or might help them in the future
empathy gap inability to accurately simulate the mental suffering of another person
bystander effect people are less likely to come to the aid of a victim when other observers are present than when they are alone
pluralistic ignorance people are collectively unaware of each other's true attitudes or beliefs
diffusion of responsibility assume that someone either has already gone for help or would be more skilled at knowing what to do
stereotypes mental representations or schemas we have about groups
prejudice negative attitude toward a group or members of a group
discrimination tendency for individuals to receive different treatment or outcomes as a result of their membership in a given social group
realistic group conflict theory negative intergroup attitudes can develop whenever groups compete against one another for access to the same scarce resources
social identity theory people maintain positive attitude for their ingroup by by seeing outgroups in a more negative light
symbolic racism tendency to redirect one's prejudice toward a racial or ethnic group to the policies that might benefit that group
aversive racism unconscious negative reactions to racial or ethnic outgroup
contact hypothesis prejudice can be reduced by friendly/cooperative interactions between members of different groups
jigsaw classroom dividing a cooperative assignment among diverse groups of students
parental investment theory suggests that women's greater expenditure of time, resources, and effort leads to far greater caution in selecting a single long term mate for support and protection
triangular theory of love passion, intimacy and commitment create different variations of what love can be
Created by: justinem
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