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OT102:Lifespan Dev.
Theories of Development and Aging
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| development | The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Most development involves growth, although it also includes decline brought on by aging and dying. |
| life-span perspective | The perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors workin |
| normative age-graded influences | These are influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group. |
| normative history-graded influences | Influences that are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances. |
| nonnormative life events | Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individual’s life. |
| culture | The behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group that are passed on from generation to generation. |
| cross-cultural studies | Comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures. These provide information about the degree to which development is similar, or universal, across cultures, and the degree to which it is culture-specific. |
| ethnicity | A characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language. |
| socioeconomic status (SES) | Refers to the grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics. |
| gender | The characteristics of people as males or females. |
| social policy | A national government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens. |
| biological processes | Changes in an individual’s physical nature. |
| cognitive processes | Changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. |
| socioemotional processes | Changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, emotions, and personality. |
| nature-nurture issue | Refers to the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences. The “nature proponents” claim biological inheritance is the most |
| stability-change issue | Involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early experience (stability) or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development (change). |
| continuity-discontinuity issue | Focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity). |
| scientific method | An approach that can be used to obtain accurate information. It includes these steps: (1) conceptualize the problem, (2) collect data, (3) draw conclusions, and (4) revise research conclusions and theory. |
| theory | An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and make predictions. |
| hypotheses | Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy. |
| psychoanalytic theories | Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized. |
| Erikson’s theory | Includes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. |
| Piaget’s theory | States that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development. |
| Vygotsky’s theory | A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. |
| information-processing theory | Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking. |
| social cognitive theory | The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. |
| ethology | Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. |
| Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory | Bronfenbrenner’s environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. |
| eclectic theoretical orientation | An orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach, but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it. |
| Biological age | a person’s age in terms of biological health. |
| Psychological age | an individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age. |
| Social age | refers to social roles and expectations related to a person’s age |
| (Erikson's Theory) TRUST VS MISTRUST (1st stage) | Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live. |
| (Erikson's Theory) AUTONOMY VS SHAME (2nd stage) | After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy.If infants and toddlers are punished too harshly, they develop a sense of shame and doubt. |
| (Erikson's Theory) INITIATIVE VS GUILT (3rd stage) | As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they face new challenges that require active, purposeful, responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious. |
| (Erikson's Theory) INDUSTRY VS INFERIORITY (4th stage) | Children now need to direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The negative outcome is that the child may develop a sense of inferiority—feeling incompetent and unproductive. |
| (Erikson's Theory) IDENTITY VS IDENTITY CONFUSION (5th stage) | If adolescents explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to follow in life, then they achieve a positive identity; if not, then identity confusion reigns. |
| (Erikson's Theory) INTIMACY VS ISOLATION (6th stage) | Individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships. If young adults form healthy friendships and an intimate relationship with another, intimacy will be achieved; if not, isolation will result. |
| (Erikson's Theory) GENERATIVITY VS STAGNATION (7th stage) | During middle adulthood. By generativity Erikson means primarily a concern for help- ing the younger generation to develop and lead useful lives. The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is stagnation. |
| (Erikson's Theory) INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR (8th stage) | In late adulthood. During this stage, a person reflects on the past. If the person’s life review reveals a life well spent, integrity will be achieved; if not, the retrospective glances likely will yield doubt or gloom—the despair Erikson described. |
| (Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory) SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (1st stage) {birth - 2 years} | The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage. |
| (Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory) PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2nd stage) {2-7 years of age} | The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action. |
| (Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory) CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (3rd stage) {7-11 years of age} | The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets. |
| (Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory) FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (4th stage) {11-adulthood} | The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways. |
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