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Psych Exam 2
Learning, Memory, Cognition, Intelligence
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Learning | relatively permanent change in behavior or the potential for behavior that results from experience (not for humans only) |
| Orienting Reflexes | not learned, natural reaction |
| Habituation & Dis-habituation | simplest type of learning, you get used to something and you stop responding |
| Ivan Pavlov | a physiologist studying digestion in dogs, came up with Classical Conditioning |
| Classical Conditioning | one of the earliest types of learning figured out; Unconditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned Response, Conditioned Stimulus, Conditioned Response |
| Unconditioned stimulus (US) | a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning (Rude call) |
| Unconditioned response (UR) | a reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning (agitation) |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | an initially neutral stimulus (NS) that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (seeing a 1-800 call) |
| Conditioned response (CR) | the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus due to the training; Usually it closes resembles of UCR (becoming annoyed) |
| Processes of Classical Conditioning | Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery |
| Acquisition | the process of pairing, CS and UCS |
| Extinction | the process of elimination response to stimulus (for burger song, play the song repeatedly with no images of the burger) |
| Spontaneous recovery | reverting back to being conditioned to stimulus even after you got rid of it (becoming hungry again when hearing song) |
| Neutral Stimulus | the stimulus that has not yet been paired (The bell in before training) |
| 4 Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning | Relationship in Time, Consistency and Reliability, Salience, and Blocking |
| Relationship in Time | NS/CS and US must occur close together in time; NS/CS should precede the US |
| Consistency and Reliability | NS/CS should reliably predict the onset of the US |
| Salience | newness, relatedness of stimulus to outcome (how noticeable something is, relevant and related to the outcome) |
| Blocking | occurs when a previous association prevents another association from being formed |
| Operant Conditioning | the process of changing behavior by following a response with a reinforcement or punishment; more complex; Association between a particular behavior and its consequences |
| We learn from… | the consequences of our behavior. |
| Differences between CC and OC | the subject’s behavior has no effect on the outcome (involuntary behavior), but in OC the subject's behavior does matter (voluntary behavior) [telling the dog to sit, he gets a steak. If he doesn’t, he gets no steak] |
| Law of Effect | main principle that guides operant conditioning; makes common sense |
| If a response is followed by a reward, it will be… | strengthened |
| If a response is followed by punishment (or no reward at all), it will be… | weakened |
| E. L. Thorndike | Law of effect; experimented with hungry cats in puzzle box |
| B. F. Skinner | Shaping; Skinner box |
| Reinforcement | consequence that increases the probability that a response will be repeated; makes you more likely to do it |
| Positive reinforcement | increase likelihood of behavior due to addition of pleasant stimulus; addition of something good (get a gold star) |
| Negative reinforcement | increase likelihood of behavior due to removal of unpleasant stimulus; removal/subtracting of something bad (putting seatbelt on to remove the annoying dinging sound) |
| Punishment | consequence that decreases the probability of a response |
| Positive punishment | decrease likelihood of behavior due to addition of unpleasant stimulus; addition of something unpleasant (writing lines til your hand bleeds) |
| Negative punishment | decrease likelihood of behavior due to removal of pleasant stimulus (taking phone away, grounding) |
| Phenomena of Operant Conditioning | Stimulus Control, Choice, and Reinforces not Equal |
| Stimulus Control | instrumental responses can occur under stimulus control |
| Choice | OC involves choice; we know the rewards and punishments, determined by its own consequences and the consequences of alternative behaviors |
| Reinforcers not equal | some things are more reinforcing to others, and to different people; Dr. Morris’s daughter not liking chocolate |
| Applications of Operant Conditioning | Behavior Modification, Animal Training, and Token Economies |
| Behavior Modification | reinforcing alternate behaviors, like speech and other behaviors that help them, not head banging and other things; developing kids |
| Animal training | shaping (you reinforce subsequent behaviors so you slowly shape behavior) |
| Token economies | like at arcades, giving kids tokens when they do something good |
| High risks of physical punishment | bottom line - doesn’t teach correct/desired behavior; teaches aggression; could harm relationships; ineffective at producing behavior changes; leads to negative emotions reactions (learned helplessness); physical punishment should be avoided |
| Effective discipline | tell child about appropriate behavior, then reinforce it; minimize situations in which bad behavior exists; use punisher that’s punishing; punishment must occur right after behavior and every time behavior occurs; remain calm when punishing |
| Social Learning Theory | defined first by Albert Bandura, states that we learn about many behaviors before we attempt them for the first time; chief component is modeling |
| Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiments | findings - kids will model violence; if they were exposed to violence, they came up with creative ways to be violent; implications - don’t have to engage in behavior for learning to occur; learning can be latent; television aggression? |
| Factors of Observational Learning and Cognition | attention, retention in memory, reproduction of behavior, and motivation |
| Attention | can’t model what you don’t pay attention to |
| Retention in memory | for learning to be latent you have to remember it |
| Reproduction of behavior | have to be able to reproduce the behavior |
| Motivation | monkey see, monkey think about it, then monkey do. |
| Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment | watching someone else get rewarded or punished; vicarious reinforcement is more effective than vicarious punishment |
| The Role of Self-Efficacy in Social Learning | we imitate others only when we have a sense of self-efficacy, when we perceive ourselves as also being able to perform the task successfully; we tend to imitate people we admire |
| Types of Memory | sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory |
| Sensory Memory | incoming info is briefly held + processed as exact copy of stimulus presented; Visual or auditory hearing the voice in your head from someone after a sec; capacity huge, take in everything; duration - ½-1sec; max 2 seconds; echoic - max 2 seconds |
| Short-Term/Working Memory | eliminate unneeded sensory information; must first pay attention; storage system for information being used; retrieve, process, send new and revised information to LTM; duration - about 20-30 second without rehearsal; capacity - limited, about 7 items |
| Chunking | remembering things in chunks |
| Maintenance Rehearsal | repeating information over and over again until it is no longer needed; NOT VERY EFFECTIVE to move information to long-term memory! |
| Long-Term Memory (LTM) | capacity - unlimited; duration - permanent; organization - procedura (implicit) and declarative (explicit) memory |
| Procedural (implicit) memory | “knowing how” to do things; memories for procedures |
| Declarative (explicit) memory | “knowing about” things |
| Types of Declarative Memories | episodic and semantic memory |
| Episodic memories | knowledge about things that happened to you (autobiographical memory) [went to hockey game] |
| Semantic (meaning) memories | knowledge about general things in the world [Canes where red] |
| 3 basic process of memory | coding, storage, retention, and retrieval |
| Coding | getting info into LTM |
| Storage | how long u keep a memory |
| Retrieval | bringing to mind different info stored |
| Stages of Memory | encoding, storage, and retrieval |
| Factors of Encoding | distinctiveness, flashbulb memories, and the levels of processing principle |
| Distinctiveness | more likely to encode things that are unique; the ease with which we can retrieve a memory depends on the number and type of associations we encode with it |
| Flash Bulb Memories | emotional, distinctive, detailed, no more accurate than other memories and more likely to be distorted (9/11 memories of the recordings being shown on first day) more frequently rehearsed |
| Levels of Processing Principle | the greater the number of associations made in LTM the greater the likelihood of transferring it to LTM |
| Factors of Storage | memory trace and consolidation |
| Memory Trace | the change in the nervous system that represents our experience |
| Consolidation | the neutral changes that occur over time to create the memory trace of an experience |
| Retrieval | the act of moving information from LTM back into consciousness; sending a cue (probe) into LTM in search of a memory trace (encoded memory) |
| Available in Memory | all information stored in memory |
| Accessible in Memory | the information we are able to retrieve |
| Retrieval Tasks | recall, cued recall, and recognition |
| Recall | when asked to produce that info; simplest form of testing; can be heavily demanding on the rememberer (when reminiscing about a vacation) |
| Cued Recall | using retrieval cues to recall information (in remembering the name “rod”, the word “coach” may be used) |
| Recognition | usually the easiest for the learner bc it’s whether or not they've seen something (recognize this person?) |
| Serial-Position Curve | primacy and recency effects |
| Primary Effect | tendency to remember the beginning |
| Recency Effect | tendency to remember the end |
| Encoding Strategies | encoding specificity principle, context-dependent memory, and state-dependent memory |
| Encoding Specificity Principle | effectiveness of original retrieval cues; the original memory cue that you make are the strongest retrieval cues later |
| Context-Dependent Memory | retrieval when they are in the same or similar circumstance as hen remembering (music while studying and listening to it) |
| State-Dependent Memory | in the same mood, on or off drugs, sleepy, hungry |
| Theories of Forgetting | amnesia, interference, cue-dependent forgetting, encoding failure, retrieval failure, decay theory, and repression |
| Amnesia | normal implicit (procedural) memory; but impaired explicit memory; hippocampus and frontal lobes play important roles in explicit (declarative) memory!; retrograde and anterograde |
| Retrograde | inability to store new memories after damage (LT explicit memory - James Bourne doesn’t know who he is but has tons of skills) |
| Anterograde | loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before brain damage (can’t make new memories - 50 First Dates) |
| Factors of Interference | proactive and retroactive |
| Proactive | when retaining old material, it makes it hard to retain new material |
| Retroactive | when learning new material, it makes it hard to retain old material |
| Cue-Dependent Forgetting | amount of info retrieved is function of type of cue/probe |
| Encoding Failure | failures in memory processes; never encoded it into LTM so you never learned it in the first place |
| Retrieval Failure | when you have a memory but it’s not accessible at the time (tip of the tongue phenomenon) |
| Decay Theory | once memory trace is stored, must be activated periodically to keep there |
| Repression | Freud |
| Ways to Improve Memory | pay attention, space practiced is better than massed, elaborative encoding, over-learning, and mnemonic devices |
| Memory is not a… | video camera |
| Reconstructive | accurate memory |
| Constructive | filling in parts that don’t really work by using our knowledge and expectations of the world |
| Positive Bias | easier to remember good things than bad things |
| Memory can be Influenced by… | schemas and context; gets happier over timeFactors of Eyewitness Memory |
| Hindsight Bias | changing a memory to match the way it turned out |
| Retrieval Bias | the way you ask the question matters |
| Police Line-ups | poor at identifying ppl bc ppl are terrible at identifying ppl from line-ups |
| Misinformation Effect | memories can be overwritten with incorrect info |
| Weapon Focus | mistakes are more likely if a weapon was used in crime |
| Influence of Stress | stress of event does not lessen ability to remember critical central info while less important details may be lost |
| Confidence of an Eyewitness | doesn’t correspond to accuracy, has much to do with ease of recall, not accuracy of information |
| Cognition | overarching broad term for all the ways you use your brain |
| Thinking | using knowledge to accomplish a goal; forming concepts, decision-making, etc. |
| Knowledge | information stored in LTM |
| Mental Representation | bits of memory that represent objects, facts, concepts, names, definitions, etc.; visual images of what we see relies on visual images and verbal knowledge |
| Concepts of Mental Representation | rotation studies and image-scanning studies |
| Rotation Studies | seemed to prove what's happening in your head is analogous to what happens in the world |
| Image-scanning Studies | seemed to prove that the visual images that we store are essentially copies of what we see in the real world |
| Cognitive Map | mental representation of spatial arrangement |
| Concepts | mental representations that group or categorize things; typically stored in verbal forms; cognitive - giving info w/ little mental effort |
| Hierarchy of Categories | superordinate, basic level, and subordinate categories |
| Superordinate Category | most general level (sea creature) |
| Basic Level Category | used to most often think about the world (dolphin) |
| Subordinate Category | less general, most specific (bottlenose dolphin) |
| Well-defined Categories/Concepts | a concept clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or classification system (equilateral triangle) |
| Fuzzy Categories/Concepts | acquired through everyday perceptions and experiences |
| Prototype Model | a way of thinking about concepts, that within each category, there is a best summary example - a prototype - for that category |
| Exemplar Model | a way of thinking about concepts, that all members of a category are examples (exemplars), and together they form the concept and determine category membership |
| Knowledge Approach to Concepts | knowledge of the world is used in learning and thinking about concepts |
| Cross-Cultural Studies of Concepts | The Dani people of New Guinea have no words for colors at all, just “light” and “dark” |
| Psychological Essentialism | the belief that members of a category have an unseen property that causes them to be in the category and to have the properties associated with it |
| Factors of Decision-Making and Judgement | bounded rationality, biases, overconfidence, anchoring, framing, availability heuristic, and representativeness heuristic |
| Bounded Rationality | cognitive limitations prevents humans from being fully rational |
| Biases | mistakes that influence judgement |
| Overconfidence | bias to have greater confidence in your judgement than is warranted based on a rational assessment |
| Anchoring | bias affected by an initial anchor, even if the anchor is arbitrary (size of anchor matters) - reliance on pre-existing info |
| Framing | the way an issue is posed can affect decisions |
| Availability Heuristic | estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory (plane crash); instances readily come to mind (vivid), we presume such events are common - Beware of Anecdotes! (more likely to die from stomach cancer or shark attack?) |
| Representativeness Heuristic | assume if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is also a member of that category - overapplying stereotypes (librarian vs salesperson traits) |
| Intelligence | the ability to judge, comprehend, reason, act purposefully, rationally, and adapt |
| Spearman | general, measurable intelligence; influences ability in intellectual tasks |
| Cattell proposed… | crystallized and fluid intelligence |
| Crystallized Intelligence | factual knowledge about the world, work meanings, arithmetic; continues to grow throughout your life (“what’s 15-5?” questions; cold hard facts, like a crystal) |
| Fluid Intelligence | the ability to think on the spot by drawing inferences and understanding relations between concepts not previously encountered; peaks in young and middle adults and declines with age (“what comes next in the sequence?” questions; go with the flow) |
| Robert Sternberg proposed… | the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - defines intelligence as being successful |
| Analytical Intelligence | book smarts, crystallized, linguistics, mathematical |
| Practical Intelligence | street smarts, how to interact w/ ppl, how to survive a maze w/ monsters chasing you, how to solve conflicts w/ ppl and adapt |
| Creative Intelligence | musical, art, ca help you be more adaptable; your strengths |
| Howard Gardner proposed… | multiple intelligences;how children are smart vs. how smart they are; talents, strengths, relationship to world & self |
| Carroll proposed… | 3 Strata Model |
| 3 Strata Model | general(III), broad(II), and narrow (I) abilities |
| Carroll’s General Abilities | Level III; general intelligence |
| Carroll’s Broad Abilities | Level II; fluid/crystallized, memory and cognition |
| Carroll’s Narrow Abilities | Level I; fluency, listening and speed |
| Simon and Binet | 1st intelligence test to identify mentally subnormal French school children |
| Requirements of A Good Intelligence Test | reliability, validity, standardization, and culture-fair |
| Reliability of a Good Intelligence Test | the ability of a test to yield nearly the same score when the same ppl are tested and then retested (Ex - stepping on a scale) |
| Validity of a Good Intelligence Test | the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure; doesn’t always go hand n’ hand w/ reliability (Ex - thermometer can measure body temp. But not weight) |
| Standardization of a Good Intelligence Test | the ability of a test to establish the norms for comparing score of ppl who take a test in the future and a set procedure for administration (Ex - 4 white female students at a private school are not representative of a general population) |
| Culture-Fair of a Good Intelligence Test | the ability of a test to not penalize whose culture differs from the mainstream/dominant culture (Ex - asking children about Santa Claus when a child maybe grew up in a house or culture that didn’t celebrate/value him) |
| Types of Intelligence Tests | WISC- David Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales and Raven’s Progressive Matrices |
| WISC- David Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales | tests verbal language and arithmetic skills - crystallized; tests performance, spacial, and problem-solving skills - fluid |
| Raven’s Progressive Matrices | attempts to be a culturally reduced test that will provide an idea for cognitive abilities w/o the need for language knowledge/cultural info |
| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) | overall quantitative measure of a child’s intelligence relative to that of other children of the same age; baked on a normal distribution of scores (mean - 100; standard deviation - 15) |
| What IQ Predicts | academic, economic, and occupational success; correlate positively and strongly w/ school grades and achievement tests |
| Group Differences in IQ | gender and ethnic differences; don’t predict individual characteristics!; when we ignore individual characteristics we are engaging in prejudice |
| Stereotype Threat of IQ | refers to ppl’s perceived risk that they might do something that supports an unfavorable stereotype about the group (Ex - testing seniors on “reading comprehension”, but then on “memory” and they do worse on the latter) |
| Carol Dweck’s Mindset on Intelligence | some kids have a growth mindset or a fixed mindset |
| Growth Mindset | reason for success is ability, but reason for failure are controllable factors and can be changed by working hard |
| Fixed Mindset | reason for success was external factors, and reason for failure is ability and you can’t change by working hard bc you were born that way |
| Nature vs. Nurture | IQ found through nature and nurture |
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marinarasauce15
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