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Psych Exam 2

Learning, Memory, Cognition, Intelligence

TermDefinition
Learning relatively permanent change in behavior or the potential for behavior that results from experience (not for humans only)
Orienting Reflexes not learned, natural reaction
Habituation & Dis-habituation simplest type of learning, you get used to something and you stop responding
Ivan Pavlov a physiologist studying digestion in dogs, came up with Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning one of the earliest types of learning figured out; Unconditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned Response, Conditioned Stimulus, Conditioned Response
Unconditioned stimulus (US) a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning (Rude call)
Unconditioned response (UR) a reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning (agitation)
Conditioned stimulus (CS) an initially neutral stimulus (NS) that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (seeing a 1-800 call)
Conditioned response (CR) the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus due to the training; Usually it closes resembles of UCR (becoming annoyed)
Processes of Classical Conditioning Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
Acquisition the process of pairing, CS and UCS
Extinction the process of elimination response to stimulus (for burger song, play the song repeatedly with no images of the burger)
Spontaneous recovery reverting back to being conditioned to stimulus even after you got rid of it (becoming hungry again when hearing song)
Neutral Stimulus the stimulus that has not yet been paired (The bell in before training)
4 Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning Relationship in Time, Consistency and Reliability, Salience, and Blocking
Relationship in Time NS/CS and US must occur close together in time; NS/CS should precede the US
Consistency and Reliability NS/CS should reliably predict the onset of the US
Salience newness, relatedness of stimulus to outcome (how noticeable something is, relevant and related to the outcome)
Blocking occurs when a previous association prevents another association from being formed
Operant Conditioning the process of changing behavior by following a response with a reinforcement or punishment; more complex; Association between a particular behavior and its consequences
We learn from… the consequences of our behavior.
Differences between CC and OC the subject’s behavior has no effect on the outcome (involuntary behavior), but in OC the subject's behavior does matter (voluntary behavior) [telling the dog to sit, he gets a steak. If he doesn’t, he gets no steak]
Law of Effect main principle that guides operant conditioning; makes common sense
If a response is followed by a reward, it will be… strengthened
If a response is followed by punishment (or no reward at all), it will be… weakened
E. L. Thorndike Law of effect; experimented with hungry cats in puzzle box
B. F. Skinner Shaping; Skinner box
Reinforcement consequence that increases the probability that a response will be repeated; makes you more likely to do it
Positive reinforcement increase likelihood of behavior due to addition of pleasant stimulus; addition of something good (get a gold star)
Negative reinforcement increase likelihood of behavior due to removal of unpleasant stimulus; removal/subtracting of something bad (putting seatbelt on to remove the annoying dinging sound)
Punishment consequence that decreases the probability of a response
Positive punishment decrease likelihood of behavior due to addition of unpleasant stimulus; addition of something unpleasant (writing lines til your hand bleeds)
Negative punishment decrease likelihood of behavior due to removal of pleasant stimulus (taking phone away, grounding)
Phenomena of Operant Conditioning Stimulus Control, Choice, and Reinforces not Equal
Stimulus Control instrumental responses can occur under stimulus control
Choice OC involves choice; we know the rewards and punishments, determined by its own consequences and the consequences of alternative behaviors
Reinforcers not equal some things are more reinforcing to others, and to different people; Dr. Morris’s daughter not liking chocolate
Applications of Operant Conditioning Behavior Modification, Animal Training, and Token Economies
Behavior Modification reinforcing alternate behaviors, like speech and other behaviors that help them, not head banging and other things; developing kids
Animal training shaping (you reinforce subsequent behaviors so you slowly shape behavior)
Token economies like at arcades, giving kids tokens when they do something good
High risks of physical punishment bottom line - doesn’t teach correct/desired behavior; teaches aggression; could harm relationships; ineffective at producing behavior changes; leads to negative emotions reactions (learned helplessness); physical punishment should be avoided
Effective discipline tell child about appropriate behavior, then reinforce it; minimize situations in which bad behavior exists; use punisher that’s punishing; punishment must occur right after behavior and every time behavior occurs; remain calm when punishing
Social Learning Theory defined first by Albert Bandura, states that we learn about many behaviors before we attempt them for the first time; chief component is modeling
Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiments findings - kids will model violence; if they were exposed to violence, they came up with creative ways to be violent; implications - don’t have to engage in behavior for learning to occur; learning can be latent; television aggression?
Factors of Observational Learning and Cognition attention, retention in memory, reproduction of behavior, and motivation
Attention can’t model what you don’t pay attention to
Retention in memory for learning to be latent you have to remember it
Reproduction of behavior have to be able to reproduce the behavior
Motivation monkey see, monkey think about it, then monkey do.
Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment watching someone else get rewarded or punished; vicarious reinforcement is more effective than vicarious punishment
The Role of Self-Efficacy in Social Learning we imitate others only when we have a sense of self-efficacy, when we perceive ourselves as also being able to perform the task successfully; we tend to imitate people we admire
Types of Memory sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory
Sensory Memory incoming info is briefly held + processed as exact copy of stimulus presented; Visual or auditory hearing the voice in your head from someone after a sec; capacity huge, take in everything; duration - ½-1sec; max 2 seconds; echoic - max 2 seconds
Short-Term/Working Memory eliminate unneeded sensory information; must first pay attention; storage system for information being used; retrieve, process, send new and revised information to LTM; duration - about 20-30 second without rehearsal; capacity - limited, about 7 items
Chunking remembering things in chunks
Maintenance Rehearsal repeating information over and over again until it is no longer needed; NOT VERY EFFECTIVE to move information to long-term memory!
Long-Term Memory (LTM) capacity - unlimited; duration - permanent; organization - procedura (implicit) and declarative (explicit) memory
Procedural (implicit) memory “knowing how” to do things; memories for procedures
Declarative (explicit) memory “knowing about” things
Types of Declarative Memories episodic and semantic memory
Episodic memories knowledge about things that happened to you (autobiographical memory) [went to hockey game]
Semantic (meaning) memories knowledge about general things in the world [Canes where red]
3 basic process of memory coding, storage, retention, and retrieval
Coding getting info into LTM
Storage how long u keep a memory
Retrieval bringing to mind different info stored
Stages of Memory encoding, storage, and retrieval
Factors of Encoding distinctiveness, flashbulb memories, and the levels of processing principle
Distinctiveness more likely to encode things that are unique; the ease with which we can retrieve a memory depends on the number and type of associations we encode with it
Flash Bulb Memories emotional, distinctive, detailed, no more accurate than other memories and more likely to be distorted (9/11 memories of the recordings being shown on first day) more frequently rehearsed
Levels of Processing Principle the greater the number of associations made in LTM the greater the likelihood of transferring it to LTM
Factors of Storage memory trace and consolidation
Memory Trace the change in the nervous system that represents our experience
Consolidation the neutral changes that occur over time to create the memory trace of an experience
Retrieval the act of moving information from LTM back into consciousness; sending a cue (probe) into LTM in search of a memory trace (encoded memory)
Available in Memory all information stored in memory
Accessible in Memory the information we are able to retrieve
Retrieval Tasks recall, cued recall, and recognition
Recall when asked to produce that info; simplest form of testing; can be heavily demanding on the rememberer (when reminiscing about a vacation)
Cued Recall using retrieval cues to recall information (in remembering the name “rod”, the word “coach” may be used)
Recognition usually the easiest for the learner bc it’s whether or not they've seen something (recognize this person?)
Serial-Position Curve primacy and recency effects
Primary Effect tendency to remember the beginning
Recency Effect tendency to remember the end
Encoding Strategies encoding specificity principle, context-dependent memory, and state-dependent memory
Encoding Specificity Principle effectiveness of original retrieval cues; the original memory cue that you make are the strongest retrieval cues later
Context-Dependent Memory retrieval when they are in the same or similar circumstance as hen remembering (music while studying and listening to it)
State-Dependent Memory in the same mood, on or off drugs, sleepy, hungry
Theories of Forgetting amnesia, interference, cue-dependent forgetting, encoding failure, retrieval failure, decay theory, and repression
Amnesia normal implicit (procedural) memory; but impaired explicit memory; hippocampus and frontal lobes play important roles in explicit (declarative) memory!; retrograde and anterograde
Retrograde inability to store new memories after damage (LT explicit memory - James Bourne doesn’t know who he is but has tons of skills)
Anterograde loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before brain damage (can’t make new memories - 50 First Dates)
Factors of Interference proactive and retroactive
Proactive when retaining old material, it makes it hard to retain new material
Retroactive when learning new material, it makes it hard to retain old material
Cue-Dependent Forgetting amount of info retrieved is function of type of cue/probe
Encoding Failure failures in memory processes; never encoded it into LTM so you never learned it in the first place
Retrieval Failure when you have a memory but it’s not accessible at the time (tip of the tongue phenomenon)
Decay Theory once memory trace is stored, must be activated periodically to keep there
Repression Freud
Ways to Improve Memory pay attention, space practiced is better than massed, elaborative encoding, over-learning, and mnemonic devices
Memory is not a… video camera
Reconstructive accurate memory
Constructive filling in parts that don’t really work by using our knowledge and expectations of the world
Positive Bias easier to remember good things than bad things
Memory can be Influenced by… schemas and context; gets happier over timeFactors of Eyewitness Memory
Hindsight Bias changing a memory to match the way it turned out
Retrieval Bias the way you ask the question matters
Police Line-ups poor at identifying ppl bc ppl are terrible at identifying ppl from line-ups
Misinformation Effect memories can be overwritten with incorrect info
Weapon Focus mistakes are more likely if a weapon was used in crime
Influence of Stress stress of event does not lessen ability to remember critical central info while less important details may be lost
Confidence of an Eyewitness doesn’t correspond to accuracy, has much to do with ease of recall, not accuracy of information
Cognition overarching broad term for all the ways you use your brain
Thinking using knowledge to accomplish a goal; forming concepts, decision-making, etc.
Knowledge information stored in LTM
Mental Representation bits of memory that represent objects, facts, concepts, names, definitions, etc.; visual images of what we see relies on visual images and verbal knowledge
Concepts of Mental Representation rotation studies and image-scanning studies
Rotation Studies seemed to prove what's happening in your head is analogous to what happens in the world
Image-scanning Studies seemed to prove that the visual images that we store are essentially copies of what we see in the real world
Cognitive Map mental representation of spatial arrangement
Concepts mental representations that group or categorize things; typically stored in verbal forms; cognitive - giving info w/ little mental effort
Hierarchy of Categories superordinate, basic level, and subordinate categories
Superordinate Category most general level (sea creature)
Basic Level Category used to most often think about the world (dolphin)
Subordinate Category less general, most specific (bottlenose dolphin)
Well-defined Categories/Concepts a concept clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or classification system (equilateral triangle)
Fuzzy Categories/Concepts acquired through everyday perceptions and experiences
Prototype Model a way of thinking about concepts, that within each category, there is a best summary example - a prototype - for that category
Exemplar Model a way of thinking about concepts, that all members of a category are examples (exemplars), and together they form the concept and determine category membership
Knowledge Approach to Concepts knowledge of the world is used in learning and thinking about concepts
Cross-Cultural Studies of Concepts The Dani people of New Guinea have no words for colors at all, just “light” and “dark”
Psychological Essentialism the belief that members of a category have an unseen property that causes them to be in the category and to have the properties associated with it
Factors of Decision-Making and Judgement bounded rationality, biases, overconfidence, anchoring, framing, availability heuristic, and representativeness heuristic
Bounded Rationality cognitive limitations prevents humans from being fully rational
Biases mistakes that influence judgement
Overconfidence bias to have greater confidence in your judgement than is warranted based on a rational assessment
Anchoring bias affected by an initial anchor, even if the anchor is arbitrary (size of anchor matters) - reliance on pre-existing info
Framing the way an issue is posed can affect decisions
Availability Heuristic estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory (plane crash); instances readily come to mind (vivid), we presume such events are common - Beware of Anecdotes! (more likely to die from stomach cancer or shark attack?)
Representativeness Heuristic assume if an item is similar to members of a particular category, it is also a member of that category - overapplying stereotypes (librarian vs salesperson traits)
Intelligence the ability to judge, comprehend, reason, act purposefully, rationally, and adapt
Spearman general, measurable intelligence; influences ability in intellectual tasks
Cattell proposed… crystallized and fluid intelligence
Crystallized Intelligence factual knowledge about the world, work meanings, arithmetic; continues to grow throughout your life (“what’s 15-5?” questions; cold hard facts, like a crystal)
Fluid Intelligence the ability to think on the spot by drawing inferences and understanding relations between concepts not previously encountered; peaks in young and middle adults and declines with age (“what comes next in the sequence?” questions; go with the flow)
Robert Sternberg proposed… the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - defines intelligence as being successful
Analytical Intelligence book smarts, crystallized, linguistics, mathematical
Practical Intelligence street smarts, how to interact w/ ppl, how to survive a maze w/ monsters chasing you, how to solve conflicts w/ ppl and adapt
Creative Intelligence musical, art, ca help you be more adaptable; your strengths
Howard Gardner proposed… multiple intelligences;how children are smart vs. how smart they are; talents, strengths, relationship to world & self
Carroll proposed… 3 Strata Model
3 Strata Model general(III), broad(II), and narrow (I) abilities
Carroll’s General Abilities Level III; general intelligence
Carroll’s Broad Abilities Level II; fluid/crystallized, memory and cognition
Carroll’s Narrow Abilities Level I; fluency, listening and speed
Simon and Binet 1st intelligence test to identify mentally subnormal French school children
Requirements of A Good Intelligence Test reliability, validity, standardization, and culture-fair
Reliability of a Good Intelligence Test the ability of a test to yield nearly the same score when the same ppl are tested and then retested (Ex - stepping on a scale)
Validity of a Good Intelligence Test the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure; doesn’t always go hand n’ hand w/ reliability (Ex - thermometer can measure body temp. But not weight)
Standardization of a Good Intelligence Test the ability of a test to establish the norms for comparing score of ppl who take a test in the future and a set procedure for administration (Ex - 4 white female students at a private school are not representative of a general population)
Culture-Fair of a Good Intelligence Test the ability of a test to not penalize whose culture differs from the mainstream/dominant culture (Ex - asking children about Santa Claus when a child maybe grew up in a house or culture that didn’t celebrate/value him)
Types of Intelligence Tests WISC- David Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales and Raven’s Progressive Matrices
WISC- David Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales tests verbal language and arithmetic skills - crystallized; tests performance, spacial, and problem-solving skills - fluid
Raven’s Progressive Matrices attempts to be a culturally reduced test that will provide an idea for cognitive abilities w/o the need for language knowledge/cultural info
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) overall quantitative measure of a child’s intelligence relative to that of other children of the same age; baked on a normal distribution of scores (mean - 100; standard deviation - 15)
What IQ Predicts academic, economic, and occupational success; correlate positively and strongly w/ school grades and achievement tests
Group Differences in IQ gender and ethnic differences; don’t predict individual characteristics!; when we ignore individual characteristics we are engaging in prejudice
Stereotype Threat of IQ refers to ppl’s perceived risk that they might do something that supports an unfavorable stereotype about the group (Ex - testing seniors on “reading comprehension”, but then on “memory” and they do worse on the latter)
Carol Dweck’s Mindset on Intelligence some kids have a growth mindset or a fixed mindset
Growth Mindset reason for success is ability, but reason for failure are controllable factors and can be changed by working hard
Fixed Mindset reason for success was external factors, and reason for failure is ability and you can’t change by working hard bc you were born that way
Nature vs. Nurture IQ found through nature and nurture
Created by: marinarasauce15
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