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Chapter 8
Cognition, Language, Intelligence
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Early psychologists: | Introspection and personal conscious activities |
| 1930s and the rise of behaviorism | Focus on behaviors |
| 1950s cognitive revolution | Cognition and thinking |
| Cognition | The mental activity associated with obtaining, converting, and using knowledge |
| Thinking | Mental activity associated with coming to a decision, reaching a solution, or forming a belief. A specific type of cognition |
| Concepts | Mental representations of categories of objects, situations, and ideas that belong together based on their central features or characteristics. Aid in organizing and synthesizing information and in drawing conclusions. Used in memory, reasoning,language |
| Hierarchies of Concepts | Superordinate, Midlevel, and Subordinate-level. Most children learn midlevel concepts first, followed by superordinate and subordinate concepts. |
| Superordinate | Broadest category; encompasses all objects in group |
| Midlevel | Basic level; general grouping most often used in everyday experiences |
| Subordinate-level | Narrow; specific |
| Formal Concepts | Mental representations of categories created through rigid and logical rules or through features. Allow us to categorize objects and ideas in a very precise way. Used heavily in natural science and math |
| Natural Concepts | Mental representations of categories resulting from experiences in daily life. Develop as a result of everyday encounters and vary according to our culture and individual experiences. Example: forest bathing |
| Prototypes | The ideal or most representative example of a natural concept Helps us categorize or identify specific members of a concept |
| Mental Images | Descriptions of images from “mind’s eye”. May be mentally manipulated in three dimensions. Imagery can involve your other senses. Similar brain regions are activated when a person imagines something or sees it in real life. |
| Left frontal lobe | Critical for broad array of higher cognitive functions, processing emotions, controlling impulses, and making plans |
| Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas | Language centers |
| Problem solving | The variety of approaches we can use to achieve our goals. Initial state to goal state (Newell et al., 1958) Obstacles that block path to solution (Farmer & Matlin, 2019) |
| Problem solving strategies | Trial and error, Algorithms, Heuristics (Subgoals or subproblems ,Means–ends analysis) |
| Insight | IKEA and the “a-ha” moment. Sometimes the best strategy is to step away and let your brain work behind the scenes. |
| Functional fixedness | a barrier to problem solving that occurs when familiar objects can only be imagined to function in their usual way |
| Mental set | tendency to fall back on strategies one has always used—even if they don’t work so well |
| Emotional barriers | Negative emotions affect your ability to think clearly and creatively. |
| Decision making | The cognitive process of choosing from approaches used to achieve a goal. Often involves predicting the future. Some situations are more certain, others involve more unknowns and thus are riskier |
| Availability heuristic | A decision-making strategy that predicts likelihood of something happening based on how easily a similar event from the past can be recalled. Can be accurate, but only when based on appropriate information. (Recency, Frequency, Familiarity, Vividness) |
| Representativeness Heuristic | decision-making strategy. evaluates degree to which the primary characteristics of a person or situation are similar to our prototype of that kind of person or situation. Can be useful; not when prototypes ignore base rates/draw on simplistic stereotypes |
| Confirmation Bias | The tendency to look for evidence that upholds our beliefs and to overlook evidence that runs counter to them. One of the reasons we are vulnerable to misinformation spread through the Internet |
| fake news | Social media uses algorithms to minimize discordant information, which functions like virtual confirmation bias. To combat: Ask critical questions, Force yourself to consume content that challenges your long-held opinions and beliefs. |
| Hindsight bias | The mistaken belief that an outcome could have been predicted easily. “I knew it all along” |
| Framing effect | Demonstrates how presentation or context of problem can influence decision outcome Often occurs outside of awareness Also applies to wording |
| Post-concussion syndrome | Includes a collection of physical and psychological symptoms that linger long after concussion occurs. Linked with subsequent speech and language disturbances |
| Hard hitting legend | The football career of Harry Carson (#53) spanned 21 years. In that time, it is estimated that Harry took as many as 30,000 hits to the head. |
| Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) | Neurodegenerative disease caused by repeated head trauma Symptoms may include abnormal accumulation of tau, headaches, depression, anger, aggression, and cognitive problems. |
| Language | A system for using symbols (words, gestures, and sounds) to think and communicate. Can be spoken, written, or signed. Humans regularly find new meanings for old words or invent new ones. |
| The Perks of Being Bilingual | Learning two languages may actually improve a child’s communication skills & lead to better performance on various cognitive tasks. Development of strong executive control due to constant exercising of the brain continues into adulthood. |
| Basic Elements of Language | Phonemes, Morphemes, Syntax, Grammar, Semantics, Pragmatics |
| Language Learning theorists: | We learn language like we learn other behaviors. |
| Language Hard-wiring Chomsky’s position: | We are born with inherent language capabilities. Language acquisition device (LAD). Capacity for language exists across cultures and in nonhearing children |
| Whorf:Linguistic relativity hypothesis | Theorized languages have different effects on thinking and perception. Observed particular cultures have many words for snow |
| Criticisms | Suggestion that Whorf exaggerated or underestimated the number of words |
| Intelligence | One’s innate ability to solve problems, adapt to the environment, and learn from experiences Relates to a broad array of psychological factors: memory, learning, perception, and language To some degree, its a cultural construct reflecting cultural values. |
| General intelligence (g-factor) | Spearman speculated that humans have a singular underlying aptitude or intellectual ability. |
| Multiple intelligence | Gardner proposed eight types of intelligences, or “frames of mind,” and suggested that partial evidence is apparent in people with brain damage. |
| Analytic intelligence | Capacity to solve problems Knowledge and skills used to handle new situations |
| Creative intelligence | Knowledge and skills used to handle new situations. |
| Practical intelligence | Ability to adjust to different environments |
| Aptitude tests | designed to assess a person’s potential for future learning Example: IQ tests |
| Achievement tests: | designed to assess acquired knowledge Example: SAT or ACT |
| Binet | Created a way to identify students who have difficulty learning in regular classrooms |
| Binet With Simon, | created an assessment to compare the mental abilities of a child with those of a group of children the same age |
| Stern | Devised the intelligence quotient (IQ). Allows for comparisons across age groups. |
| Stanford-Binet Test | Terman revised Stern’s work, changed and added items, developed standards for U.S. children, and extended test to teens and adults. Now in its 5th edition |
| Wechsler Tests | Wechsler created intelligence tests consist of variety of subtests designed to measure different aspects of intellectual ability. W Adult Intelligence Scale, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. |
| IQ Tests and Scientific Racism | Some early assessments were to produce evidence that perpetuated harmful racial stereotypes. Biases of White kids led scientists to conclude Black children were intellectually inferior. The Dove Counterbalance General Intelligence Test (Chitling Test) |
| Validity | the degree to which an assessment measures what it intends to measure |
| Differences | IQ scores consistently differ across. certain groups of people.There is no evidence to support a “genetic hypothesis”; there is more support for environmental influence and socioeconomic status (SES). |
| Culture-fair intelligence tests | Assessments are designed to minimize cultural bias. |
| Standardization | When test developers administer a test to a large sample and then publish the average scores (norms) for specified groups Includes administering tests using standard procedures. |
| Normal curve | Bell-shaped symmetrical distribution, with the highest point reflecting the average score |
| Intellectual Disability | Delay in thinking, intelligence, and social/practical skills before age 18. IQ < 70 and adaptive functioning deficits Rosa’s Law, signed in 2010, removed the phrase “mental retardation” from federal, health, education, and labor laws |
| Causes of intellectual disability | Nearly half have unidentifiable causes. Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and environmental factors |
| Terman’s Study of the Gifted | Monitored 857 boys and 671 girls with IQs from 130 to 200 (Termites). Children well adjusted socially, show leadership skills/physically healthy/attractive. Adults earned more academic degrees and achieved more financial success than did nongifted peers |
| Emotional Intelligence (Goleman) | The capacity to perceive, understand, regulate, and use emotions to adapt to social situations. Manifested in people who are self-aware and can effectively judge how to behave in social situations. Related to job and school performance |
| Heritability | The degree to which hereditary factors (genes) are responsible for a particular characteristic or trait observed within a population. Refers to the proportion of variation in a characteristic attributed to genetics Applies to groups of people |
| Creativity | The ability to construct valuable results in innovative ways. Correlated with intelligence. |
| Originality | The ability to come up with unique solutions when trying to solve a problem |
| Fluency | The ability to create many potential solutions |
| Flexibility | The ability to use a variety of problem solving tactics to arrive at solutions |
| Knowledge | A sufficient base of ideas and information |
| Thinking | The ability to see things in new ways, make connections, see patterns |
| Personality | Characteristics of a risk taker, someone who perseveres and tolerates ambiguity |
| Intrinsic motivation | Influenced by internal rewards, motivated by the pleasure and challenge of work |
| Divergent Thinking | The ability to devise many solutions to a problem. A component of creativity. Guilford’s Unusual Uses Test |
| Convergent Thinking | Conventional approach to problem solving that focuses on finding a single best solution to a problem by using previous experience and knowledge |
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leilack12
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