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Chapter 6
Learning
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Learning | a relatively enduring change in behavior or thinking that results from experiences |
| Habituation | Basic form of learning evident when an organism does not respond as strongly or as often to an event following multiple exposures to it |
| Stimulus | Event or occurrence that generally leads to a response |
| Classical conditioning | two different stimuli are associated |
| Operant conditioning | connections between behaviors and consequences are made |
| Observational learning | learning occurs by watching and imitating others |
| Neutral stimulus | stimulus that does not cause a relevant automatic or reflexive response |
| Classical conditioning | learning process in which two stimuli become associated with each other when an originally neutral stimulus is conditioned to elicit an involuntary response |
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) | Stimulus that automatically triggers an involuntary response without any learning needed |
| Unconditioned Response (UR) | Reflexive, involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus |
| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) | Previously neutral stimulus that an organism learns to associate with an unconditioned stimulus |
| Conditioned Response (CR) | Learned response to a conditioned stimulus |
| Acquisition | the initial learning phase in both classical and operant conditioning |
| Stimulus Generalization | After an association is forged between the CS and the CR, the learner often responds to similar stimuli as if they are the original CR. |
| Stimulus Discrimination | The ability to differentiate between a particular CS and other significantly different stimuli is stimulus differentiation. |
| Extinction | the process by which the conditioned response decreases after repeated exposure to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus |
| Spontaneous Recovery | the reappearance of a conditioned response following its extinction |
| Higher Order Conditioning | with repeated pairings of a conditioned stimulus and a second neutral stimulus, that second neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as well |
| Conditioned Taste Aversion | a form of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism learns to associate the taste of a particular food or drink with illness. Has adaptive value |
| Edward Thorndike; Law of effect | Put a cat in a latched cage called a “puzzle box” and planted food outside the door. Cats pawed around haphazardly until they managed to unlatch the door and then eat the food. As the trials wore on, the felines learned to free themselves quicker. |
| Reinforcers | events, stimuli, and other consequences that increase the likelihood of a behavior recurring |
| Reinforcement | process of increasing the frequency of behaviors with consequences |
| Positive Reinforcement | The process by which reinforcers are added or presented following a target behavior, increasing the likelihood of it occurring again |
| Negative Reinforcement | The removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a target behavior that increases the likelihood of it occurring again. |
| Primary Reinforcers | Satisfies a biological need. Examples: food, water, physical contact |
| Secondary Reinforcers | Does not satisfy a biological need but often gains power through its association with a primary reinforce Examples: money, good grades |
| Successive Approximations | method that uses reinforcers to condition a series of small steps that gradually approach the target behavior |
| Shaping | process by which a person observes the behaviors of another organism, providing reinforcers if the organism performs at a required level |
| Instinctive drift | the tendency of some trained animals to revert back to instinctual behaviors |
| Continuous reinforcement | Every target behavior is reinforced Ideal for establishing new behaviors during the acquisition phase |
| Partial reinforcement | Target behaviors are reinforced intermittently, not continuously. Works better for maintaining behaviors Example: Uber drivers |
| Partial Reinforcement Effect | The tendency for behaviors acquired through intermittent reinforcement to be more resistant to extinction than those acquired through continuous reinforcement |
| Fixed-Ratio Schedule | Subject must exhibit a preset number of desired responses or behaviors before a reinforcer is given. Produces a high response rate, but with a characteristic dip immediately following the reinforcement |
| Variable-Ratio Schedule | Subject must exhibit a specific number of desired responses or behaviors before a reinforcer is given, but the number changes across trials. Produces a high response rate and behaviors that are difficult to extinguish |
| Fixed-Interval Schedule | A reinforcer is given for the first target behavior occurring after a specific time interval. The target behavior tends to increase as each time interval comes to an end. |
| Variable-Interval Schedule | The reinforcer comes after an interval of time goes by, but the length of the interval changes from trial to trial (within a predetermined range based on an average interval length). Tends to encourage steady patterns of behavior |
| punishment | decreasing or stopping a behavior. |
| Positive punishment | something aversive or disagreeable is applied following a target behavior Example: incurring a fine for returning a library book late |
| Negative punishment | taking away something valuable following a target behavior Example: being grounded from driving after misbehaving |
| Positive reinforcement | Addition of a stimulus (usually pleasant) following a target behavior. Goal:Increase desired behavior |
| Negative reinforcement | Removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a target behavior. Goal: Increase desired behavior |
| Observational Learning | learning by the things you see |
| Prosocial behaviors | actions that are kind, generous, and beneficial to others Both children and adults can learn these behaviors by observing models. |
| Latent Learning | A type of learning that occurs without awareness and regardless of reinforcement. The learning is not evident until there is a need to use it. |
| Cognitive maps | a mental representation of physical space “Place cells” and “grid cells” in the brain allow us to form cognitive maps of our surroundings. |
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leilack12
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