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exam #2
psych 235
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Edward L. Thorndike | psychology student at Harvard |
| what was the title of Thorndike's dissertation and what was it about? | Investigating Animal Intelligence - studied animal intelligence by studying animal learning |
| what animals did he begin working with when doing research for his dissertation? | baby chicks |
| William James | the father of psychology |
| what did William James write? | the first "gen psych" textbook |
| what was the name of the only woman that James taught in one of his collegiate classes? | Margaret Washburn |
| what was Washburn going to be one day? | the president of the APA (American Psychological Association) |
| where did James invite Thorndike to live while he did his research? | his basement |
| Thorndike's experiments - chicks in mazes | original "T"-shaped maze; in the bottom of the "T" there was a little gate where the chick would start (the start box); in the top left side of the box there was a small pile of grain for the chick to eat |
| what were some signs of learning with the chicks in mazes? | the duration of the run - how long did it take the chick to reach the food? |
| Thorndike's experiments - cats in puzzle boxes | food was placed outside of the box; trial and error was used (cat attempts to get out of box, fails, and tries again until it escapes); every time the cat got out, the duration of the run decreased |
| the law of effect | the strength of any behavior depends on the consequences it has had in the past (behavior is a function of its consequences) |
| annoying consequence (chicks in mazes) | when the chick would take a right hand turn and take a lot longer to find the food |
| satisfying consequence (chicks in mazes) | when the chick eventually took a left hand turn to find the food almost immediately |
| Thorndike was the first to study what? | the consequences of behavior systematically/experimentally |
| Thorndike shifted the focus of learning from what to what? | inside the organism to the external environment (variables that we control) |
| B.F. Skinner full name | Burrhus Freiderich Skinner (most of the time went by Fred Skinner) |
| What did Skinner to do his children to observe them? | he kept them in clear, plexiglass type "cribs" while they slept |
| what did Skinner create to studying learning? | The Skinner Box/The Operant Chamber |
| what was the Operant Chamber built off of? | the boxes that Thorndike used for his chick/cat experiments |
| operant learning | when behavior changes as a function of its consequences |
| what is another word/term for operant learning? | instrumental learning |
| the operant model | A(ntecedent) -> B(ehavior) -> C(consequence) |
| A(ntecedent) | setting events to make a certain behavior more likely |
| some important antecedents: | availability and desire |
| B(ehavior) | anything an organism does that can be measured; it operates on the environment to control the consequence |
| C(onsequence) | not always bad (think of positive reinforcements) |
| reinforcement | the procedure of providing consequences for a behavior that increases or maintains the strength of that behavior |
| "-ment" | procedure |
| "-er" | stimulus |
| what are the three characteristics of reinforcement procedures? | must have a consequence, must increase the strength, the increase in strength must be the result of the consequence (contingency) |
| positive vs. negative reinforcement | positive = presentation negative = removal |
| how is negative reinforcement a good thing? | you are removing an aversive stimulus |
| aversive stimulus | a stimulus that is one of four things - unpleasant, uncomfortable, noxious, and/or painful |
| positive reinforcement | a behavior is followed by the presentation of a stimulus, which strengthens the behavior |
| what is reinforcement sometimes called | reward training |
| what term do strict behaviorists, that work with humans, not use and why? | "reward"; their focus should be on the behavior at hand - which is reinforced. people are rewarded |
| negative reinforcement | behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus, which strengthens the behavior |
| what is the procedure called that uses negative reinforcement? | escape training |
| what is a good example of a negative reinforcement? | A (aversive stimulus: headache) -> B (behavior: take ibuprofen) -> C (consequence: headache goes away) |
| how do we know a particular stimulus is a reinforcer? | we don't - not until we see an increase in the future strength of behavior |
| what do we mean by strength? | any dimensions that are increasing (frequency, etc) |
| behavioral momentum | two maintenance tasks followed by an acquisitional task (ex: a snowball rolling down a hill - it gains momentum the further it rolls) |
| task interspersal | you are not wailed with tasks immediately, it is more of a gradual thing; a combination of maintenance (known/easier/usual) and acquisitional (more difficult) tasks |
| what did Skinner make the object of the experimental study? | the individual, rather than the entire group |
| what type of research design did Skinner invent? | the ABAB research design |
| what does A stand for in the ABAB design? what does the B stand for? | A = baseline B = intervention/treatment |
| EAB | experimental analysis of behavior; basic research done with non-humans |
| ABA | applied behavior analysis; basic research done with humans |
| discrete trial | an organism responds, then must reset for next trial |
| were Thorndike's experiments considered a discrete or free operant trial? | discrete |
| free operant | an organism is free to respond multiple times during a session |
| were Skinner's experiments considered discrete or free operant trials? | free operant |
| primary reinforcer(s) | basic needs, unlearned |
| examples of primary reinforcers | breathing, water, food, air, shelter, etc. |
| how is everything that is not a primary reinforcer learned? | through pairing them with a primary reinforcer |
| secondary reinforcer | learned |
| examples of secondary reinforcers | books, cooking, gardening, teaching, etc. |
| natural reinforcer | natural product of behavior |
| programmed reinforcer | not a natural consequence of behavior |
| is the use of a contrived reinforcer a bad thing? | no, but it is necessary |
| contingency | a statement of probability |
| general example of a contingency | if A, then B |
| an acquisition is 100%... | contingency |
| continuity | closeness in time (immediacy of reinforcement) |
| what are the three categories that require immediacy? | 1. non-humans 2. infants/toddlers 3. individuals with significant challenges |
| reinforcer magnitude | the quality, intensity, or duration of the reinforcer provided for responding |
| why is bigger not always better? | because of the antecedent - there should be a balance between the antecedent and behavior |
| what is another way to say reinforcer quality? | different strokes for different folks |
| task characteristics | the balance between size of reinforcer and effort required to get it |
| what is another name for advantages of conditioned reinforcers? | food vs. praise |
| what are the advantages of conditioned reinforcers? | 1. slower satiation 2. improved contiguity 3. less disruption 4. can be used in many different situations |
| how can delays in learning be mediated? | 1. signal reinforcement 2. changing verbal behavior |
| how can delays be problematic? | adventitious reinforcement of other behaviors |
| what is shaping? | the differential reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior |
| shaping starts with... | a behavior that is already in the organisms repertoire |
| shaping is a combination procedure of what? | positive reinforcement + extinction |
| learning | includes changes in behavior that is already in an organism's repertoire |
| what are these changes (in terms of learning) due in part to? | schedules of reinforcement |
| continuous reinforcement | the behavior is being reinforced every time it occurs |
| continuous reinforcement is the most beneficial when... | getting a new behavior going (aka acquisition) |
| continuous reinforcement is not terribly common in... | the natural environment |
| intermittent reinforcement | behavior does not result in a reinforcer every time it occurs. instead, it is reinforced according to a schedule |
| the different types of schedules | 1. ratio 2. interval 3. duration 4. time |
| ratio schedule | the number of responses/short or quick responses |
| interval schedules | time (waiting) - is it fixed or variable? + can't get reinforcer until you respond |
| duration schedules | practice; continuous behavior |
| time schedules | no contingency |
| fixed-ratio schedule | a behavior is reinforcer when it has occurred a fixed number of times |
| variable-ratio schedule | the number of responses is required for reinforcement varies around an average |
| fixed-interval schedule | the behavior under study is reinforced the first time it occurs after a given period of time |
| variable-interval schedule | the length of the interval during which performing is not reinforced varies around some average |
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kw3093
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