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ap psych unit 2 test
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| hindsight bias | the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. also known as the 'i knew it all along' phenomenon |
| overconfidence | humans thinking we know more than we do |
| perceiving order in random events | humans are prone to perceive order in random events. also, random sequences often don't look random --> coin flip example |
| the scientific attitude | curious, skeptical, and humble |
| critical thinking | thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. |
| theory | an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events |
| hypothesis | a testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
| operational definition | a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. for example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures |
| replication | repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances |
| case study | a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
| naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
| survey | a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group |
| sampling bias | a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample |
| population | all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn |
| random sample | a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion |
| correlation | a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other |
| correlation coefficient | a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0), 1 (strong + corr.) is equally strong as -1 (strong - corr.), 0 is weak to no relation |
| scatterplot | a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation |
| illusory correlation | the perception of a relationship where none exists |
| experiment | a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (indep. vars.) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dep. var.). by random assignment of participants, the expt, aims to control other relevant variables |
| experimental group | in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable |
| control group | in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment |
| random assignment | assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups |
| double-blind procedure | an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. commonly used in drug-evaluation studies |
| placebo effect | experimental results caused by expectations alone; an effect or behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent |
| independent variable | the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied |
| confounding variable | a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment, x-factor |
| dependent variable | the outcome factor, the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable |
| validity | the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to |
| descriptive statistics | numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation |
| histogram | a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution |
| mode | the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution |
| mean | the arithmetic average of a distribution |
| median | the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it |
| skewed distribution | a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value |
| range | the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution |
| standard deviation | a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score |
| normal distribution/curve | a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes |
| inferential statistics | numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population |
| statistical significance | a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance; smaller the number, the better, want less than 5%, if 6% or bigger, add more subjects and collect more data |
| confirmation bias | only looking at things that confirm your beliefs |
| self-serving bias | only looking at things in a way that make you look good (ex. only posting pics you look good in) |
| longitudinal studies | study of a subject over a long period of time |
| correlations | probability statements |
| positive correlation | same direction, both go up or down |
| negative correlation | different direction, one goes up, other goes down |
| blind procedures | subjects don't know what the experiment is to prevent bias |
| morals vs ethics | morals: right vs. wrong ethics: actions + behavior |
| animal research | 1. human living conditions 2. companions for social animals 3. ensure health 4. minimize pain, stress, infection, etc |
| human research | 1. informed consent 2. voluntary --> need to get the right subjects 3. protection from harm --> physically and emotionally, want to minimize it 4. confidentiality 5. debriefing --> have to say what the experiment was about |
Created by:
escholer
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