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PSY 110 EXAM IV
review for exam IV
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| repression | Involuntarily removing an unpleasant memory, thought, or perception from consciousness or barring disturbing sexual and aggressive impulses from consciousness |
| projection | Attribution one’s own undesirable traits, thoughts, behavior, or impulses to another |
| denial | Refusing to acknowledge consciously the existence of danger or a threatening situation |
| rationalization | Supplying a logical, rational, or socially acceptable reason rather than the real reason for an action or event |
| regression | Reverting to a behavior that might have reduced anxiety at an earlier stage of development |
| reaction formation | Expressing exaggerated ideas and emotions that are the opposite of disturbing, unconscious impulses and desires |
| displacement | Substituting a less-threatening object or person for the original object of a sexual or aggressive impulse |
| sublimation | Channeling sexual and aggressive energy into pursuits or accomplishments that society considers acceptable or even admirable |
| Freud’s Psychosexual Theory | Unconscious forces shape personality; three components of personality are id, ego, superego; defense mechanisms protect self-esteem; personality stages are characterized by a focus on different areas of the body |
| Neo-Freudians | Jung distinguished between personal and collective unconsciousness; Adler emphasized the inferiority complex and striving for superiority; Horney focused on neurotic personality and feminine psychology |
| Maslow’s and Roger’s Theories | Maslow emphasized self-actualization; Rogers believed that unconditional positive regard helped individuals attain potential |
| Self-Esteem | Humanistic theory promotes research on self-esteem, which is somewhat stable across the lifespan; there is global and domain-focused self-esteem |
| Early Theories | Allport proposed cardinal and central traits; Cattell developed the 16PF personality test to measure source traits; Eysenck’s three-factor model includes psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism |
| Five-Factor Model | AKA Big Five includes openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN); traits are influenced by hereditary and environment; they are generally stable from childhood through adulthood and predict important outcomes |
| Situation-Trait Debate | Trait theorists argue that traits influence behavior more than situation; social-cognitive theorists argue that situations matter more than traits |
| Reciprocal Determinism | Bandura claims that personal/cognitive factors (traits, thinking), the environment (reinforcement), and behavior interact to shape personality |
| Self-Efficacy/Locus of Control | Two cognitive factors that influence personality are self-efficacy (Bandura) and locus of control (Rotter) |
| Piaget’s Theory | The theory that children construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development. - Sensorimotor stage - Preoperational stage - Concrete operational stage - Formal operational stage |
| Neo-Piagetians | Developmentalists who have elaborated on Piaget’s theory, giving more emphasis to how children use attention, memory, and strategies to process information |
| Lev Vygotsky | Russian developmentalist who reasoned that children actively construct their knowledge, but unlike Piaget, Vygotsky gave social interaction and culture far more important roles. |
| Vygotsky’s Theory | A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. |
| Zone of proximal development | Vygotsky’s term for tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with assistance. |
| Scaffolding | Process in which parents time interactions so that infants experience turn-taking with their parents; changing the level of support. |
| Conservation | In Piaget’s theory, awareness that altering an object’s or a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties. |
| Schemes | actions or mental representations that organize knowledge |
| Assimilation | using existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences (bring new objects into current schemes) |
| Accommodation | adjust schemes or create new ones to account for new information and experiences |
| Lawrence Kohlberg | Proposed six stages of moral development, which he believed are universal. |
| Preconventional reasoning | children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments. |
| Conventional reasoning | individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government. |
| Postconventional reasoning | the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code. |
| Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development | Eight stages of psychosocial development unfold throughout the lifespan. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be faced; Personality develops as response to life-crisis. |
| Teratogens | Any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes. |
| Fetal alcohol syndrome | - Mental retardation, small heads with wide set eyes and a short nose - Behavior problems (hyperactivity) |
| endorphins | Body’s natural painkillers |
| Oxytocin | Hormone that stimulates the uterus to contract |
| neonate | Newborn baby |
| gestational age | Length of the mothers pregnancy |
| Low-birth-weight babies | Babies that weigh less than 5.5 pounds |
| Preterm infants | Born before the 37th week and weigh less than 5.5 pounds |
| Gibson & Walk (1960) | - Studied depth perception in infants - Visual cliff - Conclusion: most babies can discriminate depth as soon as they can crawl |
| Secure attachment | - Easily soothed, actively explore environment - Adult: well adjusting, trusting, healthy relationships |
| Avoidant attachment | - Caregivers rebuff attempts for contact and reassurance - Adult: distant, cold, actively push people away |
| Resistant attachment | exaggerated expressions of attachment needs. In the presence of their caregiver these infants are reluctant to explore their environment and preoccupied with getting the attention of their caregiver |
| Disorganized / disoriented attachment | a child who exhibits behavioral disorganization or disorientation in the form of wandering, confused expressions, freezing, undirected movements, or contradictory patterns of interaction with a caregiver |
| Harry Harlow & Attachment | - Comfort contact - Infant monkeys were more attached to the cloth covered mother opposed to the wired one |
| Phonemes | The basic sound units of a language |
| Overextension | error in early word use in which a child uses a single word to label multiple different things in a manner that is inconsistent with adult usage |
| Underextension | error occurs when a word is given a narrower meaning than it has in adult language |
| Telegraphic speech | The use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives. |
| Overregularization | Error that results when a grammatical rule is misapplied to a word that has an irregular plural or past tense ( “goed”, “comed”, “doed”) |
| Language Acquisition Device (LAD) | Chomsky’s term that describes a biological endowment enabling the child to detect the features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics. |
| Nativist perspective | Suggests that we're born with a specific language-learning area in our brain. Nativists believe that children are wired to learn language, regardless of their environment. |
| Motherese | Highly simplified speech (slowed and high pitched) |
| Interactionist approach | According to this theory, children learn language out of a desire to communicate with the world around them. Language emerges from, and is dependent upon, social interaction. |
| Authoritarian parents | - makes rule - expects unquestioned obedience from children - excessively punishes misbehavior - values obedience |
| Authoritative parents | - sets high but realistic/reasonable goals and standards - enforces limits - encourages open communication and independence |
| Permissive parents | - makes few rules and does not enforce them - allows children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior - indulgent: warm and supportive - neglectful: lacks warmth |
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demetria1015
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