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Chapter 4
Human Development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Chapter 4 | Birth and Physical Development during the First Three Years |
| How has childbirth changed in developed countries? | development of science of obstetrics, maternity hospitals |
| What was childbirth before countries developed? | a female social ritual |
| Where are some places childbirth has not changed? | sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia |
| In developing countries, how many women deliver children at home each year? | about 60 million |
| In developing countries, how many women and children die in childbirth or shortly after? | women- 500,000; children- 4 million |
| What has revolutionized childbirth in Western cultures? | science of obstetrics, maternity hospitals |
| What percentage of childbirth took place in a hospital in 1900 (US)? In 2005? | 5%, 99% |
| What has reduced the risks in childbirth in the last 50 years? | antibiotics, blood transfusions, safer anesthesia, improved hygiene, drugs for inducing labor, improvements in prenatal assessment and care |
| What cost has the "medicalization" of childbirth had? | social and emotional costs, less intimate |
| In developed countries, what are a small but growing number of women doing? | going back to home birth, family experience, trained midwife with medical science nearby, hospital and physicians nearby |
| What is a homelike birth center? | freestanding establishment, place to give birth, lower cost, just as safe as hospital, low-risk, attended by skilled practitioners |
| How are hospitals humanizing childbirth? | birthing room, soft lights, father or coach present, older siblings visit after birth, rooming in |
| What do hospitals hope to accomplish by humanizing childbirth? | de-medicalize the experience, environment of tenderness/security/emotion, carry as much weight as medical techniques |
| apt term for the process of giving birth | labor |
| process of uterine, cervical, and other changes, usually lasting about two weeks preceding childbirth | parturition |
| What causes parturition? | sharply rising estrogen levels stimulate uterus to contract and cervix to become more flexible |
| When do uterine contractions that expel the fetus usually begin? | 266 days after conception |
| false contractions, final months of pregnancy, uterus tightens for 2 minutes | Braxton-Hicks contractions |
| How are Braxton-Hicks contractions different from real labor contractions? | Braxton-Hicks- mild, irregular; real labor- frequent, rhythmic, painful, increase in frequency and intensity |
| How many stages is labor? | 3 stages |
| What happens during the first stage of labor? How long does it last? | 12-14 hours, longest stage, regular and increasingly frequent contractions cause cervix to dilate (widen) |
| What happens during the second stage of labor? How long does it last? | up to 1-2 hours, contractions stronger and closer together, stage starts when baby's head moves through cervix into vaginal canal, stage complete when baby emerges completely from mother's body, baby attached to mother by placenta and umbilical cord |
| What can signal a baby needs help in the second stage of labor? What can be done? | lasts longer than 2 hours, doctor grasp baby's head with forceps or vacuum extraction with suction cup |
| When is the baby considered officially born? | end of second stage, when it is fully emerged from mother's body |
| What happens during the third stage of labor? How long does it last? | 10-60 minutes, the placenta and the remainder of the umbilical cord are expelled from the mother |
| mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery, can indicate how fetal heart is responding to stress of uterine contractions | electronic fetal monitoring |
| What can electronic fetal monitoring do? | detect serious problems, alert physician that fetus needs help |
| What are some benefits of electronic fetal monitoring? | provide valuable information in high risk pregnancy, including small fetus, premature, breech position, seems to be in distress, labor induced by drugs |
| What are some drawbacks of electronic fetal monitoring? | costly, restricts mother's movement during labor, high false-positive rate- could cause physician to deliver by riskier c-section |
| usual method of childbirth, fetus exits mother's body by contractions through the birth canal and vagina | vaginal delivery |
| delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus through an incision in the mother's abdomen | cesarean delivery |
| Which country in the world has the highest rate of c-section? | United States |
| What are reasons a cesarean section might be performed? | labor progresses too slowly, fetus in trouble, mother bleeding vaginally, fetus in breech or transverse position, head too big to pass through mother's pelvis |
| Why might the rate of cesarean sections be increasing? | babies are heavy, premature, low birth weight, multiple births, older first time mothers, physician's fear of malpractice suits, woman's preference |
| What risks do cesarean sections have for the mother? | serious complications- bleeding, infection, damage to pelvic organs, postoperative pain, problems with future pregnancies |
| What risks do cesarean sections have for the baby? | deprive baby of- surge of hormones that clears lungs of fluid, mobilized stored fuel to nourish cells, send blood to heart and brain |
| Why is vaginal birth after cesarean section usually avoided? | low possibility of uterine rupture, brain damage, infant death |
| Who was the first person to use anesthesia during birth? | England's Queen Victoria with her 8th child |
| method of childbirth that seeks to prevent pain by eliminating the mother's fear through education about the physiology of reproduction and training in breathing and relaxation during delivery | natural childbirth |
| method of childbirth that uses instruction, breathing exercises, and social support to induce controlled physical responses of uterine contractions and reduce fear and pain | prepared childbirth |
| What two methods of childbirth were created to minimize or eliminate the use of drugs and allow both parents to participate in a natural, empowering experience? | natural childbirth, prepared childbirth |
| What did Dr. Grantly Dick-Read suggest about pain during childbirth? | mostly caused by fear of the unknown and resulting muscular tension |
| What are the four types of medicine used in childbirth? | general anesthesia, local (vaginal) anesthesia, analgesic, regional (epidural) injection |
| What are the risks of using general anesthesia during childbirth? | Renders woman completely unconscious, greatly increases risks, rarely used |
| What are the risks of using an analgesic during childbirth? | depresses central nervous system, slow labor, maternal complications, baby less alert |
| What percentage of women use epidural injections? | 60% |
| How does using medicine during childbirth endanger the child? | Passes through the placenta and enters the fetal blood supply and tissues |
| an experienced mentor, coach, helper who can furnish emotional support and information and can stay at a woman's bedside throughout labor | doula |
| Should a woman have a relationship with the professionals caring for her and her expectations about labor? | Yes, options should be discussed early in pregnancy but choices may change in labor |
| First four weeks of life, a time of transition from the uterus, where fetus is supported entirely by the mother, to an independent existence | neonatal period |
| Identify two ways childbirth has changed in developed countries and tell why it is less risky than it once was. | Science of up obstetrics, maternity hospitals, physicians that know what they're doing |
| How does labor began? | parturition, estrogen levels rise, stimulate the uterus to contract |
| what happens during each of the three stages of childbirth? | Stage 1 contractions, stage 2 baby emerges and exits, stage 3 placenta expels |
| What alternative methods of delivery are available? | At home, homelike birth centers, hospitals with comfortable birthing room |
| newborn baby up to 4 weeks old | neonate |
| How much does an average baby weight at birth? | 5 ½ to 10 pounds |
| How long is an average baby at birth? | 18-22 inches |
| Who weighs more, firstborns or laterborns? | laterborns |
| What happens to the weight of a newborn in the first 2 weeks of life? | first 2 days lose up to 10% of body weight (loss of fluids), gain weight starting at day 5, birth weight on day 10-14 |
| What physical features do newborns have? | pinkish skin, large head, receded chin, misshapen head, “vernix caseosa” |
| When do the bones of the babies skull finish joining? | 18 months |
| places on a baby’s skull that have not yet grown together | fontanels |
| “cheesy varnish” that covers newborn’s skin, protects against infection, dries in first few days | vernix caseosa |
| What is “witch’s milk” and why does it occur? | secretion that leaks from swollen breasts of newborns, occurs from high levels of estrogen that crossed placenta before birth |
| After birth, what tasks does the baby’s body take over that the mother’s did for it? How long does it take for the transition? | blood circulation, respiration, nourishment, elimination of waste, temperature regulation, takes 4-6 hours |
| How is a newborn’s heart and blood pressure after birth? | fast and irregular, blood pressure doesn’t stabilize for 10 days |
| lack of oxygen which may cause brain damage | anoxia |
| a reduced oxygen supply | hypoxia |
| How can birth trauma occur? What can happen with birth trauma? | occurs from compression of umbilical cord and placenta, can cause brain damage, mental retardation, behavior problems, death |
| stringy, greenish-black waste matter formed in fetal intestinal tract | meconium |
| How long does it take a baby to control its sphincter muscles? | many months |
| How do babies control their body temperature? | layers of fat, increase activity when temperature drops |
| condition, in about half of newborns, caused by immaturity of the liver and evidenced by yellowish appearance; can cause brain damage if not treated properly | neonatal jaundice |
| What are the signs of jaundice? | yellow skin, yellow eyeballs |
| Is neonatal jaundice serious? | not serious, doesn’t usually need treatment, no long term effect, should be checked out, severe jaundice can cause brain damage |
| Describe the normal size and appearance of a newborn. | big head, misshapen head, receding chin, pinkish skin, possible lanugos |
| fuzzy prenatal hair that usually falls off before birth | lanugos |
| What are several changes that occur to a newborn in the first few days? | drops body weight, baby’s systems learn to operate on their own |
| Compare five fetal and neonatal body systems. | 1) blood cleanse; 2) oxygen; 3) expel waste ; 4) feeding; 5) fetus body temperature through mom, neonate regulate with fat and activity |
| Identify two serious conditions that can occur after birth. | neonatal jaundice (yellowing from immature liver), anoxia (lack of oxygen) |
| In the first couple weeks, it is important to know _ if a baby needs special care. | as soon as possible |
| standard of measurement of a newborn’s condition; assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, respiration | Apgar scale |
| What does Apgar stand for? | appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, respiration |
| When is the Apgar scale used to test the baby? | 1 minute after birth, 5 minutes after birth |
| What is the maximum and ideal score on the Apgar scale? | 2 points for each subtest, maximum score 10 |
| What is the Apgar scale used for? | to make sure the baby is ok, predict survival during the first month of life |
| neurological and behavioral test to measure neonate’s responses to the environment | Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment |
| What three things does the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) help to evaluate? | 1) help parents/healthcare providers/researchers assess neonate’s responsiveness to physical/social environment, 2) identify strengths, possible vulnerabilities in neurological functioning, 3) predict future development |
| How old can the child be to be evaluated by the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)? | up to 2 months old |
| What does the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) assess? | motor organization, reflexes, state changes, attention and interactive capacities, central nervous system instability |
| How long does a Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) evaluation take? | 30 minutes |
| Which part of the NBAS is this: such behaviors as activity level and ability to bring hand to the mouth? | motor organization |
| Which part of the NBAS is this: irritability, excitability, ability to quiet down after being upset? | state changes |
| Which part of the NBAS is this: shown by general alertness and response to visual and auditory stimuli? | attention and interactive capacities |
| Which part of the NBAS is this: indications of _ such as tremors and changes in skin color? | central nervous system instability |
| Why are tests like the Apgar scale and NBAS used? | to evaluate infants, discover correctable defects |
| Are the tests like the Apgar scale and NBAS completely accurate? | no, they can give false positives |
| an infant’s physiological and behavioral status at a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of wakefulness, sleep and activity | state of arousal (degree of alertness) |
| What does a baby’s internal clock regulate? | daily cycle of eating, sleeping, elimination, mood |
| Are the internal clocks of babies all the same? | no, they are inborn and highly individual |
| What do baby’s internal clocks affect in their bodies? | multiple areas of the brain and virtually all body systems |
| How much do babies sleep? | 75% of the time, up to 18 hours per day |
| How often do babies eat? | every 3-4 hours, day and night |
| What kinds of sleep are there for newborns? | quiet (regular) and active (irregular), active is equivalent of rapid eye movement, alternate between two cycles |
| How often does REM sleep occur throughout life? | up to 50% at birth, 30% by age 3, declines throughout life |
| When does nighttime sleep lengthen? Why? | as early as 3 months, usually 6 months, baby stays awake more during day so sleeps more at night |
| How long does a 2 year old sleep? | about 13 hours, with a nap in the afternoon |
| How can states of arousal reflect neurological status? | more asleep will mean less responsiveness |
| Discuss variations in newborn states of arousal. | eyes open or closed, breathing regular or irregular, move a little or a lot, responsiveness to stimuli |
| How do sleep patterns change? | sleep a lot at first, less during the day and more at night over time |
| How can cultural practices affect patterns of sleep? | parents may encourage sleep pattern with food pattern, limit sleep to 4 hours at a time, or allow sleep as needed |
| What complications of childbirth can endanger newborn babies? | premature, low birth weight, postmature, stillbirth |
| How many low birth weight babies are premature? | 2 out of 3 |
| infants born before completing the 37th week of gestation | preterm or premature infant |
| infants whose birth weight is less than that of 90% of babies of the same gestational age, as a result of slow fetal growth | small-for-date or small-for-gestational-age infant |
| What can cause small-for-date infants? | inadequate prenatal nutrition which slows fetal growth |
| What are the leading two causes of death infancy in the United States? | 1) birth defects, 2) prematurity and low birth weight |
| What percent of babies are born preterm? | 12.7% |
| Why are more babies born preterm currently than used to be? | rise in multiple births, increase in induced births, increase in cesarean births |
| Preterm birth is involved in _ amount of neurological birth defects. | half |
| What measures can reduce death from being born prematurely? | enhanced prenatal care, nutritional interventions, home monitoring of uterine activity, administration of drugs, bed rest, hydration, progesterone hormone |
| weight of less than 5 ½ pounds at birth because of prematurity or being small for date | low birth weight |
| What percent of babies born in the US had a low birth weight? | 8.2% |
| What weight is considered a very low birth weight for a baby? How much more likelihood is it that they will die during their first year? | 2-3.5 pounds, 100 times more likely |
| What weight is considered a moderately low birth weight for a baby? How much more likelihood is it that they will die during their first year? | 3.5-5 pounds, 5 times more likely |
| Why has there been an increase in low birth weight births? | premature births, induced delivery, cesarean delivery, delayed childbearing, fertility drugs, multiple births |
| What is the leading cause of low birth weight in developing countries? | mother’s poor health and nutrition |
| What is the leading cause of low birth weight in industrialized countries? | smoking |
| Who is likely to have a low birth weight baby? | 1) demographic and socioeconomic factors, 2) medical factors predating the pregnancy, 3) prenatal behavioral and environmental factors, 4) medical conditions associated with the pregnancy |
| What kind of demographic and socioeconomic factors affect low birth weight? | under 17, over 40, poor, unmarried, undereducated, born in certain regions |
| What kind of medical factors predating the pregnancy affect low birth weight? | no children, more than 4 children, being short, being thin, having previous low weight births, multiple miscarriages, genital or urinary abnormalities, chronic hypertension |
| What kind of prenatal behavioral and environmental factors affect low birth weight? | poor nutrition, inadequate prenatal care, smoking, use of alcohol or drugs, stress, high altitude, toxic substances |
| What kind of medical conditions associated with pregnancy can affect low birth weight? | vaginal bleeding, infections, high or low blood pressure, anemia, depression, too little weight gain, last birth fewer than 5 years ago |
| Why do African Americans have more premature and low birth weight babies? | health behaviors and SES, stress, impact of racism, ethnic differences |
| What are the biggest fears with low birth weight babies? | die from infection, nervous system too immature, need to stay warm |
| antiseptic, temperature controlled crib that a baby can be placed in | isolette |
| How do hospital workers and parents counteract the impoverishment of life of an infant in an isolette? What benefit does it have? | give baby special handling like gentle massage, seems to foster growth, weight gain, motor activity, alertness, behavioral organization |
| method of skin to skin contact in which newborn is laid face down between mother’s breasts for an hour or so at a time birth | kangaroo care |
| What benefit does kangaroo care have for a newborn? | adjustment to sensory stimuli, reduce stress on central nervous system, help with self regulation of sleep and activity |
| Respiratory distress syndrome is common in preterm babies who lack an adequate amount of an essential lung coating called _, which keeps the air sacs from collapsing. | surfactant |
| What can happen to babies with respiratory distress syndrome? How can it be treated? | breath irregularly or stop breathing, treated by administering surfactant |
| What long term risks do low birth weight and premature babies have? | adult diabetes, possibly cardiovascular disease |
| What long term risks do extremely low birth weight babies have? | neurological, sensory, cognitive, educational, behavioral problems |
| What is more likely to happen to low weight births children? | lower IQs, lower achievement test scores, special education, repeat grade, cognitive defects, more behavioral and mental health problems |
| Does birth weight alone determine whether a child will be retarded? | Not necessarily, environmental factors make a difference |
| referring to the fetus not yet born as of two weeks after the due date or 42 weeks after the mother's last menstrual period | postmature |
| What percent of women have not gone into labor after 42 weeks or more gestation? | Nearly 6% what do you postmature babies look like? |
| What risks do you postmature babies have? | Less oxygen, brain damage, death |
| death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of gestation | birth |
| Who is more likely to be stillborn boys or girls? | boys what could cause the reduction in stillbirths? |
| What is a risk for a low birth weight baby? | Neurological birth defects, not live as long, infection, slowed growth, developmental delay, need to perform basic functions, stay warm |
| What is the treatment for low birth weight baby? | Baby stays in the isolette, fed through tubes, gentle handling, kangaroo care |
| What are the outcomes for low birth weight babies? | Diabetes, cardiovascular disease, mental and physical problems, lowers IQ, special education, brain damage |
| What risks do post maturity babies have? | less oxygen, brain damage |
| Discuss the trends for stillbirths. | Can be stillborn before or after delivery |
| Can a supportive environment overcome effects of birth complications? | If given a supportive environment resilience can occur |
| What did a study by Emmy Werner suggest about children with low birth weights when they grew up? | Only seriously impaired when children grew up and persistently poor environmental circumstances, did well with stable enriching environment, had fewer problems than children who did not experience unusual stress of birth |
| Children that have low birth weight and birth complications have what kind of outcome? | Worst held, most delay development |
| influences that reduce the impact of potentially negative influences and tend to predict positive outcomes | protective factors |
| What are three categories of protective factors? | individual attributes, affectionate ties, rewards at work or school |
| What were the three protective factors identified in the Kauai study? | individual attributes, affectionate ties, rewards at work or school |
| What factors affect infant's chances for survival and health? | Birth defects, prematurity, sudden infant death syndrome, maternal complication, complication of placenta, racial/ethnic disparities, death from injuries |
| Worldwide how many children die before their first birthday? And where does the vast majority occur? | More than 1 in 20, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa |
| Worldwide how many children die in their first 24 hours of life? | As many as one half |
| What are the primary causes for neonatal death worldwide? | Preterm delivery, sepsis or pneumonia, asphyxiation |
| What makes newborn deaths preventable? | Poverty, poor maternal health and nutrition, infection, poor medical care |
| proportion of babies born alive who die within the first year | infant mortality rate |
| What is the infant mortality rate in the United States? Has the rate increased or decreased since 1980? | 6.87 infants for every 1000 live births, decreased |
| What is the United States is infant mortality rate compared to other industrialized nations? Why? | Higher rate than 24 other industrialized nations, because of diverse population, health disparities for disadvantaged groups, high percentage of low birth weight infants especially African-American |
| What are the top five causes of infant death in the United States? | Birth defects, prematurity or low birth weight, sudden infant death syndrome, maternal complications, complications of placenta/umbilical cord/membranes |
| What has caused the infant mortality rate to drop in the United States? | prevention of sudden infant death syndrome, effective treatment for respiratory distress, medical advances, reduction in air pollution |
| Black babies are more than _ as likely to die in their first year as white and Hispanic babies. | Twice as likely |
| sudden and unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant under the age of one year old | sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) |
| What is another name for sudden infant death syndrome? | Crib death |
| What babies are most likely to have sudden infant death syndrome? | Age 2 to 3 months, African-American, American Indian/Alaska natives, boy baby, born preterm, mother young, received late or no prenatal care |
| What does SIDS most likely result from? | Combination of factors, including underlying biological defect, prenatal exposure to smoke coming mutations in genes associated with irregular heart, baby sleeping facedown |
| How much did SIDS rates decline in the US between 1992 and 2001 by placing sleeping babies on their back? In other countries? | 53%, 70% |
| What do doctors recommend to prevent SIDS? | Infant should not sleep on soft surfaces, under covers, on surfaces not designed for infant |
| Is unintentional injury a leading cause of death for infants and their first years of life? | Yes |
| About 90% of all injury deaths in infancy are due to one of what four causes? | Suffocation, motor vehicle traffic, drowning, residential fires or burns |
| Why do some parents hesitate to immunize their children? Is this of a real concern? | Speculation that it may cause autism, or other neurodevelopment disorders, no evidence to support it |
| What is the benefit of multiple vaccines? | Fortify the immune system against a variety of bacteria and viruses and reduce related infections |
| Why is full immunization of all infants and preschoolers important? | Reduces the spread of preventable infectious diseases |
| What are the two principles of development? | cephalocaudal principle, proximodistal principle |
| principle that development proceeds in a head to tail direction, that other parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk | cephalocaudal principle |
| principle that development proceeds from within to without, the parts of the body near the center development for the extremities | proximodistal principle |
| The head becomes proportionally smaller as the child _. | Grows in height and lower parts of the body develop |
| Infants learn to use _ before they learn to use _. | Upper parts of body (like hands) before lower parts of body (like walk) |
| When do children grow the fastest in their whole life (after birth)? | During first three years, especially first few months |
| As the baby grows, does its body shape or proportion change? | Both |
| When does teething usually begin? | 3 or 4 months old |
| When do infants begin grabbing? | 3 or 4 months old |
| When does a baby get its first tooth? | 5 to 9 months or later |
| By the first birthday how many teeth do babies generally have? | 6 to 8 teeth |
| By age 3 how many teeth do children have? | All 20 primary |
| What influences whether a child will be tall or short, thin or stocky? | Genes, environment such as nutrition and living conditions |
| What can cause children in developed countries to grow taller and much her sexually at an earlier age? | Better nutrition, improve sanitation, medical care, decrease in child labor |
| Summarize typical patterns of physical growth and change during the first three years. | Children typically grow taller and thinner, learn to use fingers |
| Identify factors that affect growth. | Genes, nutrition, living conditions, improve sanitation, medical care |
| What are some physical benefits of breast-feeding over formula feeding for the baby? | Less likely to contract infectious illness, lower risk of said, better visual and neurological development, less likely to develop diseases, higher cognitive tests, fewer cavities |
| What are some physical benefits of breast-feeding over formula feeding for the mother? | Quicker recovery from childbirth, more likely to return to pre-pregnancy weight, less likely to develop long-term obesity, reduced risk of anemia, more confident, less anxious, less likely to develop osteoporosis or cancer |
| What are some emotional benefits of breast-feeding over formula feeding? | Warm contact, emotional linkage, quality of relationship, affection and cuddling |
| When is breast-feeding not advised for mother and baby? | Infected with AIDS or other infectious illness, active tuberculosis, exposed to radiation, drug not safe for baby, HIV |
| Who is becoming increasingly likely to breast-feed? | Black women, teenage women, poor women, working women, women with no more than a high school education |
| Worldwide, what amount of infants are ever breast-fed? | Only about one half |
| How has the United Nations tried to in the sheets encouraging of breast-feeding? | Mother is rimming and, tell benefits of breast-feeding, help start nursing, show how to maintain lactation, encourage on demand feeding, give infants only breast milk, establish support groups |
| When do pediatric experts recommend solid foods and juice be gradually introduced? | Age 1 ½ |
| What are risks of undernourished children? | Stunted growth, poor health, poor functioning in life |
| What two factors seem to strongly influence the chances that a child will be overweight? | whether child has obese parent, age of child |
| When can cow’s milk be introduced to babies? | 1 year old |
| What are the dangers of malnutrition? | Stunted growth, poor health, functioning throughout life, higher rates of anemia, death |
| What factors can contribute to obesity later in life? | Whether child has obese parent or parents, child's age |
| brain and spinal cord, sensory messages travel through this network, motor commands travel back | central nervous system |
| Growth of the brain is a _ process. | lifelong |
| How big is the brain at birth? | 1/4 to 1/3 adult size |
| At what age does the brain reach adult size? | Age 6 |
| nerves that connect skeletal muscles with cells specialized respond to sensations such as touch and pain, nerve signals to specific parts of the body through this system of nerves | peripheral nervous system |
| The brain and spinal cord are part of what system? | Central nervous system |
| nerves extending from the spinal cord are part of what system? | Peripheral nervous system |
| different parts of the brain grow rapidly at different times | brain growth spurts |
| tendency of each of the brain's hemispheres to have specialized functions | lateralization |
| part of the brain responsible for such basic bodily functions as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, sleep wake cycle | brain stem |
| part of the brain that maintains balance and motor coordination | cerebellum |
| largest part of the brain, divided into right and left halves or hemispheres, each with specialized functions | cerebrum |
| What is the left hemisphere of the brain concerned with? | Language and logical thinking |
| What is the right hemisphere of the brain concerned with? | Visual and spatial functions such as map reading and drawing |
| joins the two hemispheres of the brain allowing them to share information and coordinate commands, tough band of tissue | corpus callosum |
| When does the corpus callosum reach adult size? | By age 10 |
| What are the four lobes of the cerebral hemisphere? | Occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal |
| the outer surface of the cerebrum, governs vision, hearing, either sensory information | cerebral cortex |
| The brain growth spurt that begins about the _ trimester of gestation and continues until the _ year of life is important to the development of _. | Third, fourth, neurological functioning |
| What two things is the brain composed of? | Neurons, glial cells |
| nerve cells | neurons |
| nourish and protect the neurons | glia or glial cells |
| When do the number of neurons in the brain most rapidly increase? | Between the 25th week of gestation and the first few months after birth |
| When does the fetal nervous system begin to develop? | About three weeks |
| When does a fetus's brain began to form? | By four weeks in the primitive form |
| What three parts does the brain mainly consist of? | Brain stem, cerebellum, cerebrum |
| part of the brain that controls basic body functions such as breathing, circulation, reflex behavior | brain stem |
| part of the brain that begins to control balance and muscle tone, later coordinates sensory and motor activity | cerebellum |
| constitute 70% of the weight of the nervous system, handles thought, memory, language, a motion, sensory input, conscious motor control | cerebrum |
| the cerebrum is divided into _ hemispheres, each of which has _ sections or lobes. | Four, two |
| this lobe processes visual information | occipital lobe |
| this lobe helps with hearing and language | temporal lobe |
| this lobe receives touch sensations, spatial information, facilitates eye hand coordination | parietal |
| this lobe develops gradually during the first year and permits higher-level functions such as speech and reasoning | frontal love |
| outer surface of the cerebrum, consists of gray matter, seat of thought processes and mental activity | cerebral cortex |
| What are the neurons at about 20 weeks of gestation? | Simple cell bodies with a nucleus composed of DNA |
| Once in place in the brain what do neurons do? | Sprout axons and dendrites |
| narrow, branching, fiber like extensions | dendrites |
| send cells to other neurons | axons |
| the nervous system's communication links, how the dendrites receive incoming messages | synapses |
| chemicals that release the neurons | neurotransmitters |
| Synapses are tiny gaps which are bridged with the help of chemicals called _. | Neurotransmitters |
| Process by which neurons coordinate the activities of muscle groups | integration |
| Process by which cells acquire specialized structures and functions | differentiation |
| In brain development, it normal limitation of access brain cells to achieve more efficient functioning | cell death |
| How does cell death help the brain? | Create an efficient nervous system |
| a severe disorder of brain functioning characterized by lack of normal social interaction, impaired communication, repetitive movements, tightly restricted range of activities and interests | autism |
| How is autism usually confirmed? | Brain imaging |
| What are some signs of autism? | Inappropriate laughing, rejection to cuddling, repetitive play, avoid eye contact, prefer to be alone, difficulty expressing needs, insistence on sameness, spinning objects or self, difficulty interacting with others |
| Autism seems to lack coordination between _. | Different regions of the brain needed for complex tasks |
| related to autism but less severe disorder, children function at a higher level than children with autism, typically have interest on single topic, large vocabulary, stilted speech patterns, odd or eccentric behavior that make social contacts difficult | Asperger syndrome |
| What has attributed to a higher number of boys having autism? | Boys larger is brain size, boys natural strength in systematizing |
| To autism and related disorders have a strong genetic basis? | Yes they run in families |
| process of coating neural pathways with a fatty substance myelin, that enables faster communication between cells | myelination |
| Only about _ of the neurons originally produced survive and function and adulthood. | About half the neurons |
| _ Cells coat the neural pathways with a fatty substance called _. | glial, myelin |
| What is the first sense to develop? | Touch |
| A structure deep in the temporal lobe that plays a key role in memory | hippocampus |
| What can be factors to a child having autism? | Inherited, environmental factors, vaccine preservatives, complications during pregnancy, advanced parental age, first birth, threaten fetal loss, epidural anesthesia, induced labor, cesarean delivery |
| What are some very early signs of possible autism or related disorders? | No joyful gazing, no babbling by about five months not recognizing parents voice, no eye contact, few gestures, repetitive movements |
| What are some later signs of possible autism or related disorders? | No single words by 16 months, no babbling or other communicative gestures by one year, no two word phrases by two years, loss of language skills |
| What is a cure or way to improve autism? | No known cure, improvement with early education in intervention, speech and language therapy, instruction and social skills, medical management |
| automatic, involuntary, innate responses to stimulation | reflex behaviors |
| How many major reflexes to human infants have at birth? | 27 major reflexes |
| related to instinctive need for survival and protection or may support the early connection to the caregiver, examples: grasping reflex, sucking | primitive reflexes |
| reactions to changes in position or balance, example: infant tilted downward will extend arms | postural reflexes |
| resemble voluntary movements that do not appear until months after the reflexes have disappeared, example: walking or swimming | locomotor reflexes |
| cells that sends signals | axons |
| cells which receives signals | dendrites |
| Describe early brain development. | begins to develop by four weeks, divides into two hemispheres, each hemisphere becomes four lobes, axon and dendrites cells form, neurons develop and begin to control various muscle groups, cell death, myelination occurs, reflex behavior occurs |
| Explain the functions of reflex behaviors and why some drop out. | Reflex behaviors are involuntary processes that help the baby to survive, some drop out as a sign that motor pathways have been partially myelinated, enables a shift to voluntary behavior |
| Why do some reflex behaviors stop? | Pathways to cortex have been partially myelinated, enables shift to voluntary behavior |
| Can environmental experience modify a baby’s brain development? | Yes both positively and negatively |
| modifiability or molding of the brain through experience | plasticity |
| may be an evolutionary mechanism to enable adaptation to environmental change, enables learning | plasticity |
| Early experience can have _ effects on the capacity of the central nervous system to learn and store information. | Lasting |
| The brain is vulnerable during early development. What kinds of things can affect the brain? | Exposure to hazardous drugs, environmental toxins, maternal stress, malnutrition, early abuse, sensory impoverishment |
| Can enriched experience spur brain development? Can it make up for deprivation? | Yes, yes |
| What affects plasticity throughout life? | Neurons change in size and shape in response to environmental experience |
| What offered a natural experiment of the effects of environmental deprivation on human infants? What were the effects of environmental deprivation? | Romanian orphanages, emotionless, heard little conversation, did not walk or talk, older children played aimlessly, pet scans showed extreme inactivity of temporal lobes which regulates emotion and receive sensory input |
| What were the key factors for the children's prospects of cognitive improvement from the Romanian orphanage? | Age of adoption, length of previous institutionalization |
| What were the long-term effects of the children from the Romanian orphanages? | Adopted before age 6 months-showed no cognitive impairment, after age 6 months-IQ was 15 points lower, ages 6 to 11 last placed adoptees-cognitively impaired, showed a modest progress |
| What are the two hormones which are critical to the development of social bonds? | oxytocin, vasopressin |
| In what order do the senses develop? | Touch, smell and taste, hearing, sight |
| When can newborns begin to feel pain? | During the third trimester, more sensitive after born |
| When do newborns begin to develop a sense of touch and pain? | In the third trimester of pregnancy |
| When do you newborns begin to develop a sense of smell and taste? | In the womb, possibly through the amniotic fluid |
| Can babies prefer the fragrance of a mother's milk? Why? | Yes, possible evolutionary survival mechanism |
| When has evidence suggested that babies can begin to taste? | 20 weeks of gestation |
| What tastes do babies prefer? | Sweet, not salty, sour, bitter |
| Why might newborns reject the taste of bitter substances? | Possible survival mechanism, many bitter substances are toxic |
| What senses are somewhat developed before birth? Which are not, why? | Touch, smell, taste, hearing; vision undeveloped because of little to see in the womb |
| How far away can a neonate’s eyes focus? | About 1 foot |
| At what age is a newborns sense of vision developed? | 3 months |
| At what age can babies begin to discriminate between colors? | 4 months old |
| What is a baby’s visual acuity at birth? | 20/400 |
| What is a baby’s visual acuity at eight months? | 20/20 |
| The use of both eyes to focus, enabling perception of depth and distance | binocular vision |
| At what age does binocular vision began to develop? | 4 to 5 months |
| Give evidence for early development of the senses. | Reflexive behavior, preference to mother's voice and milk |
| How does breast-feeding play a part in the development of smell and taste? | Babies prefer the sweet taste of a mother's milk, what mother eats, baby can prefer |
| List three ways in which a newborns vision is underdeveloped. | Visual acuity is 20/400, no binocular vision, eyes focus about 1 foot away |
| Do babies need to be taught basic motor skills such as grasping crawling and walking? Why? | No, when central nervous system, muscles, bones are ready and environment is offered for exploration and practice, babies see what they can do |
| What are the early milestones of motor development? | Walking, head control, hand control, locomotion |
| What are some influences on it? | environment, genetics, culture |
| increasingly complex combinations of motor skills, which permit a wider or more precise range of movement and more control of the environment | systems of action |
| screening test given to children one month to six years old to determine whether they are developing normally | developmental screening test |
| physical skills that involve large muscles | gross motor skills |
| physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye hand coordination | fine motor skills |
| Give an example of systems of action. | Learning to walk, infant gains control of separate movements of arms, legs, feet then puts movements together to make first step |
| Give an example of gross motor skills. | Rolling over, catching a ball |
| Give an example of fine motor skills. | Grasping a rattle, copying a circle |
| What four areas of development do the Denver developmental screening test looked at? | Gross motor skills, fine motor skills, language development, personality and social development |
| What babies can the Denver developmental screening test assess? | The Western population, and not necessarily valid for a assessing children from other cultures |
| Are there any gender differences in infants and motor development? | No |
| head to tail development | cephalocaudal |
| inner to outer development | proximodistal |
| What can infants do with their heads at birth? | When lying on their back, turn head side to side; when lying on stomach, lift head enough to turn them |
| What can infants do with their heads at 2 to 3 months old? | Lift heads higher and higher |
| What can infants do with their heads at four months old? | Keep head erect while being held or supported in sitting position |
| What can babies do with their hands at birth? | Grasping reflex |
| What can babies do with their hands at about 3 1/2 months? | Grasp objects of moderate size, not small objects |
| What can babies do with their hands between seven and 11 months? | Pick up small objects |
| What can babies do with their hands at about 15 months? | Build a tower of two cubes |
| Why can a baby do with their hands by their third birthday? | Copy a circle |
| When can babies began to deliberately roll over? | After three months |
| At what age can a baby began to sit without support? When can they sit up? | 6 months, 8 ½ months |
| At what age do babies begin to crawl? | Between 6 and 10 months |
| Why can crawling babies do? | Judge distances, perceived depth, look at caregivers |
| a baby looks at a caregiver for clues as to whether a situation is secure or frightening | social referencing |
| When can babies began to stand up with help of a hand or furniture? | 7 months |
| When can babies begin to stand alone? | 11 months |
| At what age do most and then speak tend to take their first unaided steps? | 11 1/2 months |
| During a baby’s second year what can they begin to do? | Climb stairs one at a time, run, jump |
| What can most children do by age 3 ½? | Briefly balance on 1 foot, began to hop |
| _ enables infants to learn about themselves and their environment so they can make better judgments about how to navigate it. | Sensory perception |
| _ with awareness of their changing bodies, sharpens and modifies their perceptual understanding of what is likely to happen if they move in a certain way. | Motor experience |
| use of the eyes to guide movements of the hands or other parts of the body | visual guidance |
| ability to perceived objects and surfaces three dimensionally | depth perception |
| ability to acquire information about properties of objects, such as size, weight, texture by handling them | haptic perception |
| _ cues are produced by movement of the object or observer or both. | kinetic cues |
| To find out whether an object is moving, a baby might hold his head still for a moment, an ability that is well established by about _. This is an example of _. | Three months, kinetic cues |
| The ability to acquire information by handling objects rather than by simply looking at them | haptic perception |
| Explain how Richard Walk and Eleanor Gibson's tested depth perception of babies. | Babies placed on plexiglass tabletop laid over a checkerboard pattern which created the illusion of a vertical drop, babies saw cliff and ledge, crawl freely on ledge, avoided cliff |
| apparatus designed to give an illusion of depth and used to assess depth perception in infants | visual class |
| theory developed by Eleanor and James Gibson, which describes developing motor and perceptual abilities as interdependent parts of a functional system that guides behavior in varying context | ecological theory of perception |
| locomotor development depends on increasing sensitivity to physical attributes of the surrounding environment and is an outcome of both perception and action | ecological theory of perception |
| How do babies learn how far they can push their limits without losing their balance? | From experience |
| a continuous process of her interaction between baby and environment | motor development |
| stepping movements a neonate makes when held upright with feet touching a surface | walking reflex |
| “behavior emerges in the moment from the self organization of multiple components” | Thelen on dynamic systems theory |
| Esther Thelen’s theory, which holds that motor development is a dynamic process of active coordination of multiple systems within the infant in relation to the environment | dynamic systems theory |
| What four principals does dynamic systems theory emphasize? | 1) element of time, 2) interaction of multiple causes or subsystems, 3) integration of perception and cognition with action, 4) differing developmental pathways of individual children |
| How does Thelen believe babies are like jazz musicians? | infants improvise personal solutions to problems by selecting and integrating multiple patterns or strands of behavior |
| What does Thelen believe about babies developing in comparison to other babies? | Develop the same skills in the same order because they are built approximately the same way and have similar physical challenges and needs |
| What does dynamic systems theory believe about the pace of development? | Although motor development follows a virtually universal sequence, its pace does respond to certain cultural factors, a normal rate of development and one culture may be quite different in another |
| According to the Denver norms, trace a typical infants progress in hand control. | grasping reflex, grasps objects of moderate size, picked up small objects, stack objects, copy circle |
| According to the Denver norms, trace a typical infants progress in head control. | Turn head from side to side, lift head to turn, lift head higher, hold head up when supported in sitting position |
| According to the Denver norms, trace a typical infants progress in locomotion. | Rollover, sit, crawl, stand up with object, stand up, walk while holding on, first step |
| Compare Gibson’s ecological theory of perception and Thelen’s dynamic systems theory. | babies learn things one at a time, coordinate multiple systems to learn complex movements |
| How has childbirth changed and developed countries? | Development of science of obstetrics, professionalized childbirth, hospitals, physicians, medical advances and improved safety, pain relief |
| Childbirth and developed countries is not much different from childbirth in _ countries today. | Developing |
| What is a safe alternative to physician attended hospital delivery for women with normal, low risk pregnancies? | Delivery at home or in birth center attended by a midwife |
| How does labor began? | Two weeks prior to delivery parturition |
| What happens during each of the three stages of child birth? | 1) dilation of the cervix , 2) descend and emergence of the baby , 3) expulsion of the umbilical cord and placenta |
| What can detect signs of fetal distress, especially in high-risk births? | Electronic fetal monitoring |
| What alternative method of delivery is available? | Cesarean section |
| What percentage of births in the United States are delivered by cesarean section? | 30% |
| What can alternative methods of childbirth do for the parent? | Minimize need for pain killing drugs, maximize parents’ active involvement |
| _ can give effective pain relief with smaller doses of medication than in the past. | Modern epidural |
| a person that can provide physical benefits as well as emotional support | doula |
| How do newborn infants adjust to life outside the womb? | Body systems takeover, sucking reflex |
| How can we tell whether a new baby is healthy and is developing normally? | With the Apgar score, the Brazelton neonatal behavioral assessment scale |
| What is the time of transition from intrauterine life to extrauterine life? | Neonatal period |
| What body systems of the baby must become independent of the mothers after birth? | Circulatory, respiratory, digestive, a limitation, temperature regulation |
| How much time does a newborn have to start breathing on its own after birth? What can occur if it does not? | Five minutes, brain injury |
| What are newborn subject to after birth due to immaturity of the liver? | Neonatal jaundice |
| Newborn have a _ sucking reflex after birth. | strong |
| What does the Apgar score indicate? | how well baby is adjusting to extrauterine life |
| What does the Brazelton neonatal behavioral assessment scale assess? | baby’s responses to environment and predict future development |
| What is a newborn state of arousal governed by? | Periodic cycles of wakefulness, sleep, activity |
| What can affect sleep patterns? | Cultural customs |
| What complications of childbirth can endanger newborn babies? | Premature, low birth weight, postmature, stillbirth |
| What are the prospects for infants with complicated births? | A supportive postnatal environment and other protective factors can improve the outcome |
| What can low birth weight cause? | Infant mortality, long-term physical and cognitive problems |
| What factors can affect infants’ chances for survival and health? | Postnatal care |
| Why can reduce infant mortality? | Postnatal care |
| Where do the vast majority of infant deaths occur? | In developing countries |
| What are the leading causes of death in infancy? | Birth defects, premature, low birth weight, sudden infant death syndrome, maternal complications, complications of placenta, umbilical cord, membranes |
| What is sudden infant death syndrome? | Leading cause of postnatal death |
| How can sudden infant death syndrome be prevented? | Lay babies on their backs to sleep |
| As rates of immunization have improved, what has declined? | Vaccine preventable diseases |
| Normal physical growth and sensory and motor development proceed according to what principles? | cephalocaudal, proximodistal |
| Describe a child's body growth through the first three years. | Grows dramatically during the first year of life, growth proceeds at a rapid but diminishing rate over the first three years |
| are overweight babies at a special risk of becoming obese adults? | No unless they have obese parents |
| _ system controls sensory motor activity. | Central nervous system |
| _ enables each hemisphere of the brain to specialize in different functions. | Lateralization |
| Describe the growth of the brain during the first few months before birth and immediately after birth. | Brain grows rapidly during first months before birth, it neurons migrate to assigned locations, form synaptic connections, undergo integration and differentiation, cell death and myelination improve the efficiency of nervous system |
| What are the three types of reflexive behaviors? | Primitive, locomotor, postural |
| Why do most early reflexes drop out during the first year? | Voluntary, cortical control develops |
| Especially during the early period of rapid growth, _ can influence brain develop positively or negatively. | Environmental experience |
| True or False: very young infants show pronounced abilities to discriminate between stimuli. | True |
| Sensory capacities develop when? | Develop in the womb, develop rapidly in the first few months of life |
| _ is the first sense to develop and mature. | Touch |
| Are newborn sensitive to pain? | Yes |
| What four senses began to develop in the womb? | Smell, taste, hearing, touch |
| What is the least well developed sense at birth? | Vision |
| What five things develop with the eyes within the first few months after birth? | peripheral vision, color perception, acuteness of focus, binocular vision, ability to follow a moving object |
| What are the early milestones in motor development? | Ability to develop motor skills |
| What are some influences on early motor development? | Cultural practices, self locomotion, motivation, experience, context |
| Motor skills developed in a certain sequence but depend largely on what? | Maturation, context, experience, motivation |
| True or False: simple skills combine into increasingly complex systems. | True |
| _ brings about changes in all domains of development. | Self locomotion |
| _ is intimately related to motor development. _ and _ develop in the first half of the first year. | Perception, depth perception, haptic perception |
| According to _ theory, sensory perception and motor activity are coordinated from birth, helping and dense to figure out how to navigate in their environment. | Gibson’s ecological theory |
| According to _ theory, holds that infants develop motor skills, not by maturation alone, but by active coordination of multiple systems of action within a changing environment. | Thelen’s dynamic systems theory |
| _ practices may influence the pace of early motor development. | Cultural |
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