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DevPsych

Chapter 1 and 2

TermDefinition
The field of human development focuses on the scientific study of the systematic processes of change and stability in people.
Developmental scientists (or developmentalists) individuals engaged in the professional study of human development—look at ways in which people change from conception through maturity as well as at characteristics that remain fairly stable.
life-span development human development is a lifelong process—a concept known as
Goal of Human development 1. to describe 2.To explain 3. To predict 4. To intervene
three major domains that developmental scientists study 1. physical 2. cognitive 3. psychosocial
Physical development Growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health
cognitive development Learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity
psychosocial development Emotions, personality, and social relationships
social construction Division of the life span into periods is a
what does social construction mean? a concept or practice that may appear natural and obvious to those who accept it, but in reality is an invention of a particular culture or society
concept of childhood a social construction
adolesence this term was introduced recently in industrial societies
infants dependent on adults for food, clothing, and shelter as well as for human contact and affection,. they form attachments to parents and caregivers, who also become attached to them
toddlers become more self-reliant; they need to assert their autonomy but also need parents to set limits on their behavior
early childhood children gain more self-control and become more interested in other children
middle childhood control over behavior gradually shifts from parent to child, and the peer group becomes increasingly important
adolescence is the search for identity—personal, sexual, and occupational
adulthood an exploratory period in the early to mid-20s
young adulthood establishing independent lifestyles, occupations, and usually, families. By the 30s, most adults have successfully fulfilled those tasks.
middle adulthood some decline in physical capabilities is likely. At the same time, many middle-aged people find excitement and challenge in life changes—launching new careers and adult children—while some face the need to care for elderly parents.
late adulthood people need to cope with losses in their faculties, the loss of loved ones, and preparations for death
Hypnotizability an individual difference between people and is normally distributed just as many other traits are.
influences on development 1. heredity 2. environment 3. maturation
heredity inborn traits or characteristics inherited from the biological parents
environment the world outside the self, beginning in the womb, and the learning that comes from experience
maturation abilities to walk and talk —the unfolding of a natural sequence of physical changes and behavior patterns
nuclear family a household unit consisting of one or two parents and their children, whether biological, adopted, or stepchildren
extended family a multigenerational network of grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and more distant relatives—is the traditional family form
extended family becoming less typical in many developing countries due to industrialization and migration to urban centers
socioeconomic status (SES) based on family income and the educational and occupational levels of the adults in the household
10 percent In the United States, where poverty thresholds depend on family size and composition, how many percent are in extreme poverty?
risk factors conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative outcome—are present
Culture to a society’s or group’s total way of life, including its customs, traditions, laws, knowledge, beliefs, values, language, and physical products, from tools to artworks
Culture —all of the behavior and attitudes that are learned, shared, and transmitted among members of a social group
ethnic group consists of people united by a distinctive culture, ancestry, religion, language, and/or national origin, all of which contribute to a sense of shared identity and shared attitudes, beliefs, and values
race historically and popularly viewed as an identifiable biological category
Many scholars now agree that the term RACE is a social construct
ethnic gloss an overgeneralization that obscures or blurs such variations
media exposure due to the very fast paced growing society we have, it is now a normative influence to children
normal influences biological or environmental events that affect many or most people in a society in similar ways
normative age-graded influence are highly similar for people in a particular age group. the timing of biological events is fairly predictable within a normal range.
normative history-graded influence these are significant events that shape the behaviors and attitudes of a historical generation
historical generation a group of people who experience the event at a formative events in their lives
cohort a group of people born at about the same time
nonnormative influences unusual events that have a major impact on individual lives because they disturb the expected sequence of the life cycle.
types of influences contribute to the complexity of human development as well as to the challenges people experience in trying to build their lives.
three types of influences 1. normative age graded 2. normative history graded 3. nonnormative
imprinting instinctively follow the first moving object they see, whether or not it is a member of their species
predisposition toward learning the readiness of an organism’s nervous system to acquire certain information during a brief critical period in early life
critical period a specific time when a given event, or its absence, has a specific impact on development
plasticity modifiability of performance
sensitive periods a developing person is especially responsive to certain kinds of experiences
Development is lifelong Development is a lifelong process of change. Each period of the life span is affected by what hap-pened before and will affect what is to come.
Development is multidimensional It occurs along multiple interacting dimensions—biological, psychological, and social—each of which may develop at varying rates
Development is multidirectional As people gain in one area, they may lose in another, sometimes at the same time
Relative influences of biology and culture shift over the life span The process of development is influenced by both biology and culture, but the balance between these influences changes
Development involves changing resource allocations Individuals choose to invest their resources of time, energy, talent, money, and social support in var-ying ways
Development shows plasticity Many abilities, such as memory, strength, and endurance, can be improved significantly with train-ing and practice, even late in life
Development is influenced by the historical and cultural context Each person develops within multiple contexts—circumstances or conditions defined in part by mat-uration and in part by time and place.
Theory Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data.
Hypotheses Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research.
mechanistic model Model that views development as a passive, predictable response to stimuli.
organismic model model that views developments as internally initiated by an active organism, and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages.
quantitative change changes in number or amount, such as the frequency with which a response is made
qualitative change changes in kind or nature, implying that development occurs in a series of distinct stages or steps
learning perspective view of development that holds that changes in behavior result from experience or adaptation to the environment
Behaviorism learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment causing observable behavior
classical conditioning learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit a response
operant conditioning learning based on reinforcement or punishment
reinforcement in operant conditioning, a stimulus that encourages repetition of a desired behavior
punishment in operant conditioning, a stimulus that discourages repetition of a behavior.
extinguished term referring to the return of a behavior to its original, or baseline level after removal of reinforcement
behavior modification (behavior therapy) use of conditioning to gradually change a behavior
social learning theory theory that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models; also called social cognitive theory
reciprocal detirminism bandura's concept that the person acts on the world as the world acts on the person
observational learning learning through watching the behavior of others
Social cognitive theory: Bandura’s newest version of social learning theory in which the emphasis on cognitive response to perceptions is increased.
Self-efficacy A confidence that a person has the characteristics needed to succeed.
cognitive perspective views that thought processes are central to development
clinical method technique combining observation and flexible questioning
Organization The tendency to create increasingly complex cognitive structures (schemes).
Scheme Organized patterns of behavior that a person uses to act and think about a situation.
adaptation How children handle new information in light of what they already know.
assimilation part of adaptation, taking in new information and incorporating into existing cognitive structures
accommodation part of adaptation, changing one's cognitive structure to include new information
equilibration the constant striving for a stable balance in shift from assimilation to accommodation
sociocultural theory by lev vegotsky focuses on the social and cultural processes that guide children's cognitive development
collaborative vegostky's view that children learn through social interaction
Zone of Proximal development (ZPD) the gap between what children is already able to do and what they are not quite ready to accomplish by themselves
scaffolding the temporary support that parents, teachers, or others give a child in doing a task until the child can do it alone
Information-processing approach Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information.
Computational models Flowcharts that analyze the specific steps people go through in gathering, storing, retrieving, and using information.
Neo-Piagetian Theories Proponents of these theories seek to integrate elements of Piaget’s theory with the information-processing approach.
Contextual perspective View of development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context.
Bioecological theory Bronfenbrenner’s approach to understanding processes and contexts of human development.
Microsystem Bronfenbrenner’s term for a setting in which a child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis.
Mesosystem Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more microsystems
Exosystem Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more settings, one of which does not contain the child.
Macrosystem Bronfenbrenner’s term for a society’s overall cultural patterns.
Chronosystem Bronfenbrenner’s term for effects of time on other developmental systems.
Evolutionary/Sociobiological perspective View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of social behavior
Survival of the fittest Darwinian process in which the animal most capable of survival (the one with the most adaptable traits) survives to pass on its genes in offspring.
Natural selection Darwinian process in which the weak and those with maladaptive traits are removed from the gene pool, leaving only the healthiest and strongest to survive and continue the species
Ethology Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species
Developmental systems approach The view that human development is the outcome of a dynamic process of bidirectional interaction between person and environment.
Evolutionary psychology Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior
Quantitative research Research that focuses on “hard” data and numerical or statistical measures
Qualitative research Research that focuses on “soft” data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs.
Scientific method System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry
Population A group to whom the findings in research may apply.
Sample Group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study
Generalized Application of results from a sample study to the population as a whole
Random selection Method of selecting participants in a study so that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen
Naturalistic observation Research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or manipulation
Laboratory observation Research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions
Observer bias The researcher’s tendency to interpret data to fit expectations or to emphasize some aspects and minimize others.
Valid A test that measures the abilities it claims to measure is said to be valid
Reliable A test that provides consistent results from one testing to another is reliable.
Standardized A test that is given and scored by the same methods and criteria for all test-takers is said to be standardized
Operational definitions Definitions stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon
Cognitive neuroscience Study of cognitive development that links brain processes with cognitive ones.
case study Study of an individual.
Ethnographic study In-depth study of a culture which uses a combination of methods including participant observation
Participant observation Research method in which the observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed.
Correlational study Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists.
Correlation A statistical relationship between two or more variables.
Variables Phenomena that change or vary among people or that can be varied for purposes of research
Positive correlation Variables that are related increase or decrease together
Negative correlation Variables have an inverse relationship; as one increases, the other decreases.
Experiment Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other.
Replicate Repeating an experiment in exactly the same way with different participants to verify the results and conclusions.
Experimental group In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study.
Treatment The phenomenon the researcher wants to study.
Control group In an experiment, the group of people who do not receive the treatment whose effects are to be measured.
Treatment groups In an experiment, groups that each receive one of the treatments under study.
Double-blind procedure An experiment in which neither the participants nor those running the experiment know who is receiving the treatment.
Placebo An inert treatment.
Independent variable: In an experiment, the condition over which the experimenter has direct control
Dependent variable In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable.
Random assignment Assigning the participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group.
Confound Contamination of an experiment by unintended differences between the groups.
Laboratory experiment Experiment in which the participants are brought to a special place where they experience conditions manipulated by the experimenter.
Field experiment A controlled study conducted in an everyday setting, such as home or school.
Natural experiment : Study comparing people who have been accidentally “assigned” to separate groups by circumstances of life (a correlational study).
Cross-sectional study Study design in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion
Longitudinal study Study designed to assess changes in a sample over time.
Sequential study Study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques.
Created by: hungryboi
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