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psyc112
psychology level 100
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Phoneme | a single unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word. |
| morpheme | the smallest unit of language that carries meaning. |
| bound vs unbound morphemes | bound – only has meaning when attached to something else (suffix) Unbound – words that hold meaning regardless |
| syntax | who is doing what to who/ language structure |
| aphasia | The inability to produce and/or understand language |
| Deep structures | meaning of a sentence |
| surface structure | the organisation of words in a sentence |
| content words | words carrying conceptual understanding |
| semantics | the understanding of content words and how they are connected. |
| V.O.T | Voice time interval. the time between each sound phoneme produced. |
| word production increase after the first 50 words because... | 1. Symbolic nature of language 2. Control over articulation 3. Easier retrieval |
| infant word production is limited by... and... | 1.vocal tract shape 2. limited devlopment of motor cortex |
| underextention | the application of a word to only one member of a category. e.g dog meaning family dog but no other dogs |
| overextension | the application of a member of a category to identify everything within that same category. e.g dog meaning all animals |
| 3 main stages of speech development | 1. Cooing – 2 months old 2. Replicated bubbling – 6–7 months 3. Variegated babbling – 11–12months |
| sensitive period | Ideal/easiest (but not critical) time to learn certain parts of language. Ends at puberty |
| evidence for a sensitive period include... | deaf singers and isolated children (Genie) |
| Nativist views of language | language is innate |
| Language bioprogram hypothesis | Children are innately predisposed to acquire the syntax of language. proven through pigeon & Creole languages (related to nativist views) |
| proof for nativist views | 1. Children acquire language rapidly 2. Children acquire language effortlessly 3. Children acquire language without being taught |
| Pidgin languages | Invented language drawing on words and grammar from a group of languages |
| Creole languages | more grammatically complex form of pidgin languages |
| Social learnings role in vocab devlopment | Children’s vocabularies strongly associated with the amount of language parents use. Response to innate explanations for language learning |
| Self–construct in Independent cultures | Self–concept separate from group Personal goals will take priority over group goals |
| Self–construct in Interdependent cultures | Self–concept is part of the group goals take priority Relationships crucial |
| representation | Knowledge of the world which forms the content of our thoughts |
| Analogical representations | Mental images |
| Symbolic representations | Propositional thoughts & Symbols (represent any kind of content, but don’t resemble what it is they stand for) |
| mental imagery/analogical | a representation of a stimulus that originates inside your brain, rather than from external sensory input |
| propositions | Statements that express ideas |
| reasoning is... | Intelligent thought, Making decisions, problem–solving & Drawing implications from our beliefs |
| Deductive Reasoning | inferences following the premise/s (Initial premises need to be correct) |
| Syllogism | The validity of the conclusion follows the premises |
| Inductive Reasoning | From data to theories Start with specificity and then infer with general principles |
| belief bais | reasoning on the basis of plausibility rather than logic |
| confirmation bias | prior beliefs held influancing the chosen conclusion |
| Heuristics | shortcuts that are correct much of the time |
| Availability Heuristic | Probability estimates are influenced by how easy it is to retrieve information |
| Saliency Bias | the tendency to use available traits to make a judgment about a person or a situation |
| Means–end Analysis | the problem solver begins by envisioning the ultimate goal, then determines the best strategy |
| hill–climbing problem solving | to change the present state of the problem so that you are one step closer to solving the problem. |
| Language independent of cognition reasoning | 1. Powerful abstract thinking can take place without language 2. Babies have concepts before language |
| Language influences cognition reasoning | 1. Children’s conceptual development correlates strongly with language development 2. Language encodes different styles of thinking |
| The Whorfian Hypothesis (AKA The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis) | Having a specific language determines (strong version) or influences (weak version) how we think |
| Intelligence | “the ability to acquire knowledge, to think and reason effectively and to deal adaptively with the environment” – Passer & Smith |
| Samuel Morton (1820s‐1850s) | Intelligence & head size showed racial bias |
| Paul Broca (1824‐1880) | Intelligence & brain size. Gender biases. Correlation = .33 |
| Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911) | Intelligence as hereditary and is a fixed trait. made the first systematic attempts to measure intelligence found that there is no relation to social class |
| Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911) | Developed test to predict school success knowen now as the Stanford Binet IQ test |
| Mental ages vs cronical age | Mental age: the average age at which children achieve a particular score Chronological age: the real age of the child |
| The Flynn effect | the Increase in each generation in IQ scores. |
| spearman's two–factor theory | a 'general' score based on the performance on subtests of specific tasks |
| fluid intelligence | ability to learn and adapt |
| crystalised intelligence | acquired knowledge from culture e.g Vocabulary size |
| Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence | Analytic: Compare and contrast Create: Formulate theory of intelligence Practical: Use what you’ve learned |
| Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences | Linguistic Musical Logical‐Mathematical spatial Bodily‐Kinesthetic Interpersonal and Intrapersonal |
| Abecedarian Project | Enriched Day Care generates a difference in intelligence Scores |
| Data collection in developmental psychology | Self–Report Observation Experimental Methods Clinical Interview Methods |
| Jean Piaget (1896– 1980) | Proposed a sequence of development that all normal children follow Four ‘stages’ of cognitive development |
| Sensorimotor Stage | 0–2 yrs have; Schema Formation Representational Thought Symbolic play Imitation developing; Object permanence |
| Preoperational Stage | 2–7yrs Have egocentrism Developing Conservation (the understanding that specific properties of objects) |
| sequence of development | 1. Sensorimotor Stage 2. Preoperational Stage 3. Concrete Operations Stage 4. Formal Operations Stage |
| Concrete Operations Stage | 7 to 12 yrs have; logical analysis empathise with the thoughts/feelings of others cause–effect relations |
| Formal operations stage | 12yrs+ have; Abstract Reasoning Metacognition principles of scientific thinking |
| Social learning theory | the theory that by observing other people in the environment we learn how to behave |
| Kohlberg's theory | boys between 10–17 year olds presented with ethical dilemmas then bases on their reactions he would class them in a particular stage of moral development. |
| Pre conventional level | behaviour is based on external sanctions Stage one – the morality of punishment and obedience Stage two – the morality of naive instrumental punishment |
| Conventional level | Includes an understanding that the social system Stage three – the morality of maintaining good intentions Stage four – the morality of maintaining social order – laws and moral laws |
| Post conventional level | Stage five – the morality of social contracts Stage 6 – the morality of the universal ethical principle |
| Morphological sex | what genitalia looks likeSex assigned at birth |
| Development of gender | 18 months – beginnings of gender–typed preference Age 3 – knowledge of own gender. prominent preference for own gender. Age 5 knowledge of gender constancy |
| Montemayor (1974) | 6 &8 yrs boys play a game labelled as gender–appropriate, gender–neutral, or gender–inappropriate. findings; liked the game more if it was labelled gender–appropriate or gender neutral |
| Morrongiello & Dawber (1999) | Mothers and fathers communicate more directions, fewer explanations and more physical pressure towards sons than daughters |
| Smith & Lloyd | Mothers behave differently according to the assigned gender label of a child. Even with no differences in appearance or outward behaviour |
| Characteristics of Imaginary Companions Marjorie Taylor | 16% based on real people. Many have magical powers or unusual physical traits I.C animals can usually talk. around 3% are enemies |
| Why Do Children Develop imaginary companions? | as scapegoats or protectors or surrogate for real friends |
| compensatory theory | imaginary companions provide fun and companionship. |
| Taylor, Cartwright, & Carlson (1993) | children with Imaginary companions; Score more highly on verbal tests Have a more developed theory of mind at age 4 |
| How Common is Attachment to Objects? Mahalski (1983) | ages of 1.5yrs = 90 % and 7yrs = 43% peaks at 2 |
| transitional objects | Attachment objects as easing the passage between sleep and waking |
| American Academy of Pediatrics screen time recommendations | Under 2 = 0 hrs 2 yrs = 0 hrs 3– 5–yrs = 1 hrs 5– 8 yrs = 1 hrs 8+ = 1.5 – 2 hrs |
| Ball & Bogatz (1970) | TV viewing decreases reading achievement. TV disrupts sleep. TV violence has a negative effect on children and adolescents. |
| Boyatzis, Matillo, & Nesbitt (1995) | Those watching “Power Rangers” committed 7 aggressive acts for every aggressive act committed by a control child. |
| Huessman et al. (1984) | Boys who exhibited a preference for violent TV 8 committed more serious crimes by the age of 30 than those with a lower preference for violent TV at 8. |
| Anderson & Dill (2000) | Video–game use correlated with aggressive personality, nonaggressive delinquency and aggressive delinquency |
| Forms of therapy | Individual Couple Family |
| Eclectic therapy | Therapist selects techniques from various types of therapy to design a treatment that best suits the case. |
| Humanistic therapy | Focus is on teaching the patient to seek fulfilment and reach their potential. |
| Behavioural therapy | Focus is on the PRESENT. Modify problem behaviours by applying the principles of conditioning (pairing). Treatment focuses on using techniques like exposure, reinforcement, ignoring and punishment. |
| Psychodynamic (aka Psychoanalytic) therapy | Focus on the PAST. behaviour as driven/ motivated by powerful unconscious inner forces. based on early life traumas/conflicts/ frustrations/deprivations. |
| Approaches to Treat Mental Illness as disease | Biomedical Treatment Psychological Treatment Biological Treatments |
| DSM–5 | he Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |
| Generalised Anxiety | Anxiety is generalised and persistent. |
| Panic Disorder | a discrete period of intense fear in the absence of real danger. |
| Agoraphobia | fear of public spaces & open spaces |
| Obsessive–compulsive disorder | obsessions; intrusive thoughts/impulses that are persistent, uncontrollable, and irrational Compulsions:Repetitive excessive behaviour/mental acts a person is driven to perform to reduce anxiety |
| PTSD | intrusive Distressing memories in response to internal/external remindersof actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence |
| Major depressive episode (MDE) | meeting at least 5 of the DSM–5 list of symptoms for depresstion over a 2 week period |
| Becks cognitive therapy | 4 phases (20 sesh) Increase activities and elevate mood Challenge automatic thoughts Identify negative thinking and biases Change primary attitudes/schemas |
| Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) | Effective for severe depression Relapse is common |
| Psychosis Symptom Clusters | Positive Symptoms Negative Symptoms Disorganised Symptoms |
| Schizophrenia | Delusions Hallucinations Disorganised speech Grossly disorganised or catatonic behaviour |
| Anhedonia | inability to feel pleasure |
| Avolition | lack of motivation |
| Schizophreniform Disorder | Relatively short duration of symptoms |
| Schizoaffective Disorder | Independent symptoms of SZ and mood disorder |
| Manic Episode | 1+ week of elevated, expansive or irritable mood must reflect a change of functioning. Leads to Impairment to functioning, hospitalisation or psychotic features |
| Hypomanic Episode | Four days of elevated, expansive or irritable mood does not impair ability to work or maintain social responsibilities |
| Bipolar I Disorder | Major Depressive Episode +Manic Episode (Cyclical in nature) |
| Bipolar II Disorder | Major Depressive Eposode + Hypomania Episode |
| Cyclothymic Disorder | Persistent Depressive Disorder + Hypomanic Episode |
| Anorexia Nervosa | Restriction of energy intake relative to requirements, leading to a significantly low body weight |
| Bulimia Nervosa | Recurrent binge eating with a sense of lack of control & compensatory behaviour in order to prevent weight gain at least once a week for 3 months |
| Binge eating disorder | Recurrent binges (2x week, at least 6 months) BED does not involve regular use of inappropriate compensatory behaviours |
| Defining disorders of childhood Difficult because... | 1.likely to act out rather than seek help 2.deviance & irrational behaviour is somewhat normal 3. Some disorders cause little/no conscious distress |
| Intellectual Disability | Onset before age 18 Deficits in intellectual functioning Deficits in adaptive functioning Communication Social |
| Autism Spectrum Disorder | Deficits in Social Communication, Nonverbal behaviours, development of peer relations and social and emotional cues RANGES FROM MILD TO SEVERE |
| Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 3 subtypes | 1. inattentive 2. hyperactive–impulsive 3. Combined |
| Inattentive ADHD | Easily distracted lots of careless mistakes Difficulty listening Difficulty organising Avoids tasks requiring attention Loses things Forgetful |
| Hyperactivity/Impulsivity ADHD | Fidgets excessive energy Talks excessively Blurts out comments/thoughts Interrupts or intrudes on others |
| Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) | Early–onset Argumentative Authoritative problems externalization Anger and resentment |
| Conduct Disorder | More severe than ODD Aggression to people and animals Destruction of property Serious violation of rules Childhood–onset or Adolescent–onset |
| Cognitive perspective on social psychology | Emphasis on how perception affects behaviour. |
| Learning perspective on social psychology | Motivational perspective/Emphasis on principles of reinforcement and imitation. Focus on observable behaviour and ignore cognition. |
| Biological perspective on social psychology | evolutionary past and genetic disposition Cultural perspective |
| Levels of explanation in social psychology | 1. Intra–personal level – within the person 2. Inter–personal level – between individuals 3. Inter–group level – within and between groups 4. Societal level – within and between societies |
| Psychoanalysis | The study of the unconscious development of personality |
| Freud | the basic human condition was a ‘pleasure seeking instincts’ restraints of society internalized in childhood. always a conflict between instincts and the demands of society |
| ID | primitive part of the psyche. Contains most basic urges Id impulses will always reappear. |
| EGO | Works on the reality principle.Tries to satisfy the id programmatically in accordance with societal norms. |
| SUPEREGO | internalized rules of society. defence mechanisms occur a form of 'moral compass' based off how we are expected to act |
| Origins of unconscious conflicts | Unconscious conflicts are a result of childhood experiences. |
| Phallic stage | Oedipus complex wants to sexually possess the mum = hates dad. Fears dad find out and castrate him = castration anxiety. Resolved when give up desires for his mum & identifies with dad, hopes someday have a partner like mum. |
| Electra complex | Girl realises does not have a penis –> feels castrated develops ‘Penis Envy’. Turns to dad who has the organ for a penis substitute (a baby) turns her sexual attention to dad – hates mum. anxiety over desires –> identifies with mum |
| Oral stage | oral fixation, smoking, thumb sucking. |
| LaPiere (1934). | the relation between racist attitudes and behaviour (less actioned behavur) |
| Theory of Reasoned Action. | relationship between attitudes and behaviour The intention to behave is important because despite strong attitudes about something will engage in attitude consistent behaviour when they feel there is a chance of success. |
| Himmelweit (1990) | a 15–year study found that attitudes to capital punishment did not change |
| Attitudes change due to | behaviour change or Cognitive Dissonance |
| McAlister et al. (1982) | Attitude resilience sought to prevent teenagers from smoking (only losers smoke) |
| Attribution | people's perception of the causes of an event affects what they do and how they feel” (Antaki, 1984 p. 240). |
| 4 Levels of Analysis | Intra personal, level Interpersonal level, Intergroup level, Societal level. |
| Adorno et al. (1950). | people who are over deferential and submissive to authority figures and hostile to minorities. |
| Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT) | Attitudes reflect the objective interests of the ingroup. assumed; If interests coincide = harmonious relations conflict of interests = hostile relations. |
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