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psyc112

psychology level 100

TermDefinition
Phoneme a single unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word.
morpheme the smallest unit of language that carries meaning.
bound vs unbound morphemes bound – only has meaning when attached to something else (suffix) Unbound – words that hold meaning regardless
syntax who is doing what to who/ language structure
aphasia The inability to produce and/or understand language
Deep structures meaning of a sentence
surface structure the organisation of words in a sentence
content words words carrying conceptual understanding
semantics the understanding of content words and how they are connected.
V.O.T Voice time interval. the time between each sound phoneme produced.
word production increase after the first 50 words because... 1. Symbolic nature of language 2. Control over articulation 3. Easier retrieval
infant word production is limited by... and... 1.vocal tract shape 2. limited devlopment of motor cortex
underextention the application of a word to only one member of a category. e.g dog meaning family dog but no other dogs
overextension the application of a member of a category to identify everything within that same category. e.g dog meaning all animals
3 main stages of speech development 1. Cooing – 2 months old 2. Replicated bubbling – 6–7 months 3. Variegated babbling – 11–12months
sensitive period Ideal/easiest (but not critical) time to learn certain parts of language. Ends at puberty
evidence for a sensitive period include... deaf singers and isolated children (Genie)
Nativist views of language language is innate
Language bioprogram hypothesis Children are innately predisposed to acquire the syntax of language. proven through pigeon & Creole languages (related to nativist views)
proof for nativist views 1. Children acquire language rapidly 2. Children acquire language effortlessly 3. Children acquire language without being taught
Pidgin languages Invented language drawing on words and grammar from a group of languages
Creole languages more grammatically complex form of pidgin languages
Social learnings role in vocab devlopment Children’s vocabularies strongly associated with the amount of language parents use. Response to innate explanations for language learning
Self–construct in Independent cultures Self–concept separate from group Personal goals will take priority over group goals
Self–construct in Interdependent cultures Self–concept is part of the group goals take priority Relationships crucial
representation Knowledge of the world which forms the content of our thoughts
Analogical representations Mental images
Symbolic representations Propositional thoughts & Symbols (represent any kind of content, but don’t resemble what it is they stand for)
mental imagery/analogical a representation of a stimulus that originates inside your brain, rather than from external sensory input
propositions Statements that express ideas
reasoning is... Intelligent thought, Making decisions, problem–solving & Drawing implications from our beliefs
Deductive Reasoning inferences following the premise/s (Initial premises need to be correct)
Syllogism The validity of the conclusion follows the premises
Inductive Reasoning From data to theories Start with specificity and then infer with general principles
belief bais reasoning on the basis of plausibility rather than logic
confirmation bias prior beliefs held influancing the chosen conclusion
Heuristics shortcuts that are correct much of the time
Availability Heuristic Probability estimates are influenced by how easy it is to retrieve information
Saliency Bias the tendency to use available traits to make a judgment about a person or a situation
Means–end Analysis the problem solver begins by envisioning the ultimate goal, then determines the best strategy
hill–climbing problem solving to change the present state of the problem so that you are one step closer to solving the problem.
Language independent of cognition reasoning 1. Powerful abstract thinking can take place without language 2. Babies have concepts before language
Language influences cognition reasoning 1. Children’s conceptual development correlates strongly with language development 2. Language encodes different styles of thinking
The Whorfian Hypothesis (AKA The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis) Having a specific language determines (strong version) or influences (weak version) how we think
Intelligence “the ability to acquire knowledge, to think and reason effectively and to deal adaptively with the environment” – Passer & Smith
Samuel Morton (1820s‐1850s) Intelligence & head size showed racial bias
Paul Broca (1824‐1880) Intelligence & brain size. Gender biases. Correlation = .33
Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911) Intelligence as hereditary and is a fixed trait. made the first systematic attempts to measure intelligence found that there is no relation to social class
Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911) Developed test to predict school success knowen now as the Stanford Binet IQ test
Mental ages vs cronical age Mental age: the average age at which children achieve a particular score Chronological age: the real age of the child
The Flynn effect the Increase in each generation in IQ scores.
spearman's two–factor theory a 'general' score based on the performance on subtests of specific tasks
fluid intelligence ability to learn and adapt
crystalised intelligence acquired knowledge from culture e.g Vocabulary size
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Analytic: Compare and contrast Create: Formulate theory of intelligence Practical: Use what you’ve learned
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Musical Logical‐Mathematical spatial Bodily‐Kinesthetic Interpersonal and Intrapersonal
Abecedarian Project Enriched Day Care generates a difference in intelligence Scores
Data collection in developmental psychology Self–Report Observation Experimental Methods Clinical Interview Methods
Jean Piaget (1896– 1980) Proposed a sequence of development that all normal children follow Four ‘stages’ of cognitive development
Sensorimotor Stage 0–2 yrs have; Schema Formation Representational Thought Symbolic play Imitation developing; Object permanence
Preoperational Stage 2–7yrs Have egocentrism Developing Conservation (the understanding that specific properties of objects)
sequence of development 1. Sensorimotor Stage 2. Preoperational Stage 3. Concrete Operations Stage 4. Formal Operations Stage
Concrete Operations Stage 7 to 12 yrs have; logical analysis empathise with the thoughts/feelings of others cause–effect relations
Formal operations stage 12yrs+ have; Abstract Reasoning Metacognition principles of scientific thinking
Social learning theory the theory that by observing other people in the environment we learn how to behave
Kohlberg's theory boys between 10–17 year olds presented with ethical dilemmas then bases on their reactions he would class them in a particular stage of moral development.
Pre conventional level behaviour is based on external sanctions Stage one – the morality of punishment and obedience Stage two – the morality of naive instrumental punishment
Conventional level Includes an understanding that the social system Stage three – the morality of maintaining good intentions Stage four – the morality of maintaining social order – laws and moral laws
Post conventional level Stage five – the morality of social contracts Stage 6 – the morality of the universal ethical principle
Morphological sex what genitalia looks likeSex assigned at birth
Development of gender 18 months – beginnings of gender–typed preference Age 3 – knowledge of own gender. prominent preference for own gender. Age 5 knowledge of gender constancy
Montemayor (1974) 6 &8 yrs boys play a game labelled as gender–appropriate, gender–neutral, or gender–inappropriate. findings; liked the game more if it was labelled gender–appropriate or gender neutral
Morrongiello & Dawber (1999) Mothers and fathers communicate more directions, fewer explanations and more physical pressure towards sons than daughters
Smith & Lloyd Mothers behave differently according to the assigned gender label of a child. Even with no differences in appearance or outward behaviour
Characteristics of Imaginary Companions Marjorie Taylor 16% based on real people. Many have magical powers or unusual physical traits I.C animals can usually talk. around 3% are enemies
Why Do Children Develop imaginary companions? as scapegoats or protectors or surrogate for real friends
compensatory theory imaginary companions provide fun and companionship.
Taylor, Cartwright, & Carlson (1993) children with Imaginary companions; Score more highly on verbal tests Have a more developed theory of mind at age 4
How Common is Attachment to Objects? Mahalski (1983) ages of 1.5yrs = 90 % and 7yrs = 43% peaks at 2
transitional objects Attachment objects as easing the passage between sleep and waking
American Academy of Pediatrics screen time recommendations Under 2 = 0 hrs 2 yrs = 0 hrs 3– 5–yrs = 1 hrs 5– 8 yrs = 1 hrs 8+ = 1.5 – 2 hrs
Ball & Bogatz (1970) TV viewing decreases reading achievement. TV disrupts sleep. TV violence has a negative effect on children and adolescents.
Boyatzis, Matillo, & Nesbitt (1995) Those watching “Power Rangers” committed 7 aggressive acts for every aggressive act committed by a control child.
Huessman et al. (1984) Boys who exhibited a preference for violent TV 8 committed more serious crimes by the age of 30 than those with a lower preference for violent TV at 8.
Anderson & Dill (2000) Video–game use correlated with aggressive personality, nonaggressive delinquency and aggressive delinquency
Forms of therapy Individual Couple Family
Eclectic therapy Therapist selects techniques from various types of therapy to design a treatment that best suits the case.
Humanistic therapy Focus is on teaching the patient to seek fulfilment and reach their potential.
Behavioural therapy Focus is on the PRESENT. Modify problem behaviours by applying the principles of conditioning (pairing). Treatment focuses on using techniques like exposure, reinforcement, ignoring and punishment.
Psychodynamic (aka Psychoanalytic) therapy Focus on the PAST. behaviour as driven/ motivated by powerful unconscious inner forces. based on early life traumas/conflicts/ frustrations/deprivations.
Approaches to Treat Mental Illness as disease Biomedical Treatment Psychological Treatment Biological Treatments
DSM–5 he Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Generalised Anxiety Anxiety is generalised and persistent.
Panic Disorder a discrete period of intense fear in the absence of real danger.
Agoraphobia fear of public spaces & open spaces
Obsessive–compulsive disorder obsessions; intrusive thoughts/impulses that are persistent, uncontrollable, and irrational Compulsions:Repetitive excessive behaviour/mental acts a person is driven to perform to reduce anxiety
PTSD intrusive Distressing memories in response to internal/external remindersof actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence
Major depressive episode (MDE) meeting at least 5 of the DSM–5 list of symptoms for depresstion over a 2 week period
Becks cognitive therapy 4 phases (20 sesh) Increase activities and elevate mood Challenge automatic thoughts Identify negative thinking and biases Change primary attitudes/schemas
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) Effective for severe depression Relapse is common
Psychosis Symptom Clusters Positive Symptoms Negative Symptoms Disorganised Symptoms
Schizophrenia Delusions Hallucinations Disorganised speech Grossly disorganised or catatonic behaviour
Anhedonia inability to feel pleasure
Avolition lack of motivation
Schizophreniform Disorder Relatively short duration of symptoms
Schizoaffective Disorder Independent symptoms of SZ and mood disorder
Manic Episode 1+ week of elevated, expansive or irritable mood must reflect a change of functioning. Leads to Impairment to functioning, hospitalisation or psychotic features
Hypomanic Episode Four days of elevated, expansive or irritable mood does not impair ability to work or maintain social responsibilities
Bipolar I Disorder Major Depressive Episode +Manic Episode (Cyclical in nature)
Bipolar II Disorder Major Depressive Eposode + Hypomania Episode
Cyclothymic Disorder Persistent Depressive Disorder + Hypomanic Episode
Anorexia Nervosa Restriction of energy intake relative to requirements, leading to a significantly low body weight
Bulimia Nervosa Recurrent binge eating with a sense of lack of control & compensatory behaviour in order to prevent weight gain at least once a week for 3 months
Binge eating disorder Recurrent binges (2x week, at least 6 months) BED does not involve regular use of inappropriate compensatory behaviours
Defining disorders of childhood Difficult because... 1.likely to act out rather than seek help 2.deviance & irrational behaviour is somewhat normal 3. Some disorders cause little/no conscious distress
Intellectual Disability Onset before age 18 Deficits in intellectual functioning Deficits in adaptive functioning Communication Social
Autism Spectrum Disorder Deficits in Social Communication, Nonverbal behaviours, development of peer relations and social and emotional cues RANGES FROM MILD TO SEVERE
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 3 subtypes 1. inattentive 2. hyperactive–impulsive 3. Combined
Inattentive ADHD Easily distracted lots of careless mistakes Difficulty listening Difficulty organising Avoids tasks requiring attention Loses things Forgetful
Hyperactivity/Impulsivity ADHD Fidgets excessive energy Talks excessively Blurts out comments/thoughts Interrupts or intrudes on others
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) Early–onset Argumentative Authoritative problems externalization Anger and resentment
Conduct Disorder More severe than ODD Aggression to people and animals Destruction of property Serious violation of rules Childhood–onset or Adolescent–onset
Cognitive perspective on social psychology Emphasis on how perception affects behaviour.
Learning perspective on social psychology Motivational perspective/Emphasis on principles of reinforcement and imitation. Focus on observable behaviour and ignore cognition.
Biological perspective on social psychology evolutionary past and genetic disposition Cultural perspective
Levels of explanation in social psychology 1. Intra–personal level – within the person 2. Inter–personal level – between individuals 3. Inter–group level – within and between groups 4. Societal level – within and between societies
Psychoanalysis The study of the unconscious development of personality
Freud the basic human condition was a ‘pleasure seeking instincts’ restraints of society internalized in childhood. always a conflict between instincts and the demands of society
ID primitive part of the psyche. Contains most basic urges Id impulses will always reappear.
EGO Works on the reality principle.Tries to satisfy the id programmatically in accordance with societal norms.
SUPEREGO internalized rules of society. defence mechanisms occur a form of 'moral compass' based off how we are expected to act
Origins of unconscious conflicts Unconscious conflicts are a result of childhood experiences.
Phallic stage Oedipus complex wants to sexually possess the mum = hates dad. Fears dad find out and castrate him = castration anxiety. Resolved when give up desires for his mum & identifies with dad, hopes someday have a partner like mum.
Electra complex Girl realises does not have a penis –> feels castrated develops ‘Penis Envy’. Turns to dad who has the organ for a penis substitute (a baby) turns her sexual attention to dad – hates mum. anxiety over desires –> identifies with mum
Oral stage oral fixation, smoking, thumb sucking.
LaPiere (1934). the relation between racist attitudes and behaviour (less actioned behavur)
Theory of Reasoned Action. relationship between attitudes and behaviour The intention to behave is important because despite strong attitudes about something will engage in attitude consistent behaviour when they feel there is a chance of success.
Himmelweit (1990) a 15–year study found that attitudes to capital punishment did not change
Attitudes change due to behaviour change or Cognitive Dissonance
McAlister et al. (1982) Attitude resilience sought to prevent teenagers from smoking (only losers smoke)
Attribution people's perception of the causes of an event affects what they do and how they feel” (Antaki, 1984 p. 240).
4 Levels of Analysis Intra personal, level Interpersonal level, Intergroup level, Societal level.
Adorno et al. (1950). people who are over deferential and submissive to authority figures and hostile to minorities.
Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT) Attitudes reflect the objective interests of the ingroup. assumed; If interests coincide = harmonious relations conflict of interests = hostile relations.
Created by: 2520480518237044
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