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Memory
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Memory | Persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information |
| Three Step process to memory | Encoding, storage, retrieval |
| Encoding | Process of transforming info into the memory system |
| Storage | The retention of encoded information over time |
| Retrieval | Process of getting information out of memory |
| Two types of encoding | Effortful and automatic |
| Automatic processing | Unconscious and coding of incidental information. Such as a space, time, frequency and well learned information |
| Effortful processing | Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
| Rehearsal | Conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness and encode it for storage |
| Spacing effect | Distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice |
| Serial position effect | Tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list |
| Three types of things we encode | Semantic, acoustic, visual encoding |
| Semantic encoding | The meaning of something is encoded |
| Acoustic encoding | Encoding of sound |
| Visual encoding | Encoding of picture |
| Imagery | Mental pictures which are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding |
| Mnemonics | Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| Chunking | Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. Often occurs automatically and through the use of acronyms |
| Organization | Organized info is more easily recalled and benefits memory |
| Forgetting as of encoding failure | Info never enters the memory system because attention is selective |
| Sensory memory (storage) | The immediate, initial recording of sensory info in the memory system |
| Two types of sensory memory | Iconic and echoic memory |
| Iconic memory | Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
| Echoic memory | Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli |
| Selective attention | Can only pay attention to a small amount of info in our sensory memory at once |
| Research for short-term memory | George Miller |
| Magical number 7 | People can easily recall up to about seven items plus or minus two. This cannot be enhanced through organizational encoding= chunking |
| Three-box information processing model | Buy Atkinson and Shiffrin. Divides memory into three types: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory |
| New type of memory | Working memory |
| Working memory | Info in short-term memory that is currently being manipulated |
| Long-term memory | It has virtually limitless capacity and we don't have to discard old items to remember new items |
| Three types of long term memory | Episodic, semantic, and procedural |
| Episodic memories | Sequential events in narrative stories that make up your own personal history. Explicit-memories can be consciously recalled and described |
| Semantic memories | Factual knowledge of the world: names, dates, word meanings, categories, etc. Explicit-memories can be consciously recalled and described |
| Procedural memories | Memories for skills and how to perform them. Implicit- don't need it to consciously recall it or be aware that the memory exists in order to perform the behavior |
| Ebbinghaus | |
| He worked to quantify how much and how quickly memory faded. | |
| Forgetting curve | Initially information is lost quite rapidly, but then it levels off with time |
| Karl Lashley experiment | Trained rats to solve maze, then cut out pieces of their cortex and retested their memory of maze. Partial memory was retained |
| The hippocampus and explicit memory | Hippocampus is in the neural Center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage |
| Amnesia | Can't form new memories |
| Retrograde amnesia vs anterograde amnesia | Loss of existing and past memories |
| Long-term potentiation (LTP) | Long lasting change in the structure function of a synapse that increases the efficiency of neural transmission. "Neurons that fire together wire together" |
| Possible reasons for LTP | NMDA- a receptor for the neurotransmitter glutamate |
| Stress hormones and memory | Heightened emotions makes for stronger memories. Hormones such as epinephrine act on brain centers in the brain. Extreme stress on your minds learning and later recall |
| Hippocampus in relation to memory | Turns STM to LTM |
| Locations of memory storage in the brain | Frontal lobe- semantic and episodic. Motor cortex- procedural. Cerebellum- procedural. Hippocampus- formation of new LTM, semantic, episodic. Amygdala- new emotional memories. Temporal lobe- LTM sematic and episodic, processing of new STM. Prefrontal cort |
| Recall (Retrieval) | Person must retrieve info learned earlier. Ex: fill in the blank test |
| Recognition | Person and need only to identify items previously learned. Ex: multiple choice test |
| Relearning | Assesses the amount of time saved one real learning material for a second time |
| Priming | Activation, often unconsciously, a particular associations in memory to speed up initial learning |
| Retrieval clues | Reminders of info we cannot otherwise we're call and guides to wear to look for info |
| Context Effects | Memory works better in the context of original learning. Ex: if you are tested in the same place where you learnt the information, your test results will be better |
| Three types of retrieval cues | |
| Deja vu- cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. Mood Congruent- tendency to recall experience that are consistent with one's current mood. State Dependant- what is learned in one state can more e | |
| Retrieval failure | Forget something at the moment but later on remember |
| Reasons for forgetting | Interference, motivated forgetting, repression, positive transfer |
| Interference (2) | Learning some items May interfere with retrieving others. Proactive Interference- old information replaces new (PORN). Retroactive Interference- new information replaces old |
| Motivated forgetting | People unknowingly revise history because they don't want to remember |
| Repression | Defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness |
| Positive transfer | Sometimes old info facilitates our learning of new info |
| Forgetting at different stages of memory | Sensory memory- census momentarily register amazing detail. STM- a few items are both noticed and encoded. LTM- some items are altered or lost. Retrieval from LTM- something is get retrieved, some don't |
| Biological forgetting factors | Damage to the hippocampus, neurotransmitters, decay theory |
| Damage to the hippocampus | Difficulty forming new memories |
| Neurotransmitters and forgetting | Acetylcholine is linked with forgetting. Alzheimer's patients show low levels of this |
| Decay theory | Memories that area because of the passage of time |
| Distractor studies | Info fades from STM |
| Misinformation effect | Incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event |
| Source amnesia | Attributing to the wrong source of an event that we experience, heard about, read about, or imagined |
| Memory construction | People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions. Imagining events can create false memories |
| Memories of abuse | Repressed or constructed? Child abuse does occureven though some innocent people suffer false accusations. Some adult's to actually forget such episodes |
| False memory syndrome | Person's identity and relationship center around false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience |
| Schacter's "seven sins of memory" | Transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence |
| Transience | Failure of retrieval that results from the passage of time (retrieval) |
| Absentmindedness | Forgetting that occurs due to a lapse in attention (retrieval) |
| Tool to avoid absentmindedness | Prospective memory- planning a reminder for something that will force our attention to retrieve the memory at the appropriate time |
| Blocking | We have a memory but are temporarily unable to successfully retrieve it. Causes a tip-of-the-tongue experience. (retrieval) |
| Misattribution | Whe incorrectly identify where memory came from (recall) |
| False recognition | A new stimulus is similar enough hair to a previously seen stimulus that we think they're the same |
| Cryptomnesia | We believe that a thought is new, when it actually it is a memory of an old. This can lead to inadvertent plagiarism |
| Suggestibility | External info can infiltrate and modify our memories, |
| Elizabeth Loftus findings | Our memories are not recordings of events, rather reconstructions of events |
| Bias (2) | Consistency bias- we tend to reconstruct our past so that it seems more like our present. Egocentric bias- we tend to selectively recall memories that make us look better |
| Persistence | Intrusive memories are brought back to mind repeatedly and without conscious control. Ex: PTSD |
| Flashbulb memories | Detailed memories of emotionally charged events |
| Schema | A set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience |
| Schemata | Incoming info is fit with existing schematic. Schematic and also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event |
| Reconstruction | Memories can be altered it with each retrieval |
| Hierarchy | Complex info broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories |
| Deep vs shallow processing | Deep-analyzes meaning. Shallow- doesn't |
| Spacing effect | Distributing rehearsal is better than practicing all at once |
| Rote rehearsal | Repetition can result in long-term memory but it is only effective if there is intent to learn material |
| Elaborative rehearsal | Relating new info to info already stored in memory.meaning is assigned to new info and then a link to as much as existing info as possible |
| Link method | |
| you associate or link the items together in order to recall them | |
| Testing effect | Testing and feedback has been shown to improve recall |
| Overlearning | Transience decreases when you review material that you already knew |
| Method of loci | Memorize layout of a building, assigns memories to items in building, person walks through building and is able to see items |
| Parallel processing | If a memory is at the tip of your tongue but you can't remember it, your brain will continue to work on this problem eventually surfacing with the answer |
| Sleep and memory | Sleep plays a key role in consolidating our memories |
| Number systems | One way to visualize numbers is to use a shape system that creates a visual image for each digit. Ex: 0 could be an egg |
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