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Cognition + Language
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| Mental activities in cognition | Concept, problem solving, decision making, judgment formation, language, memory (cats probably don't juggle lemon meringues) |
| Schema or concept | A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people |
| Prototype | The most typical or best examplethat has many or all of this characteristic features that we associate with a particular category |
| Category | Once we place an item in a category, our memory shifts towards the category prototype |
| How to modify a schema | Assimilation and accommodation |
| Assimilation | Incorporates new experiences into existing mental structures and behaviors |
| Accommodation | Changing theories as new information is added |
| Adaption | Child organizes his or her schemata into more complex mental representations linking one schema with another |
| Exemplar theory | We are not limited to thinking just about prototypes, we may also mentally compare a stimulus two other examples in memory |
| Four problem-solving steps | Define the problem, use that definition to decide what category of problem belongs to, select the solution strategy that would solve a problem in that category, always evaluate progress toward a goal |
| Mental set | Tendency to think only of what has worked in the past |
| Functional fixedness | Tendency to view tools as only being useful in the way that we usually use |
| Convergent thinking | Having a single solution to a problem |
| Divergent thinking | Having many possible solutions and one solution may not be at all related to the other solutions |
| Possible solution strategies | Trial and error, information retrieval, algorithms, heuristics (TIHA) |
| Trial and error | Works best with limited number of choices |
| Information retrieval | Retrieve it from memory information about how such a problem has been solved in the past |
| Algorithms | Step-by-step methods that exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a guaranteed solution |
| Heuristics | Simple rules learned from experience that people used to make decisions, come to judgment, and solve problems. However, there is no guarantee that it will work but they are faster than algorithms |
| 4 heuristic methods | Hill climbing, subgoals, means-end analysis, working backward |
| Hill climbing heuristic | Move progressively closer to go without moving backward, ex: raising money |
| Subgoals heuristic | Break large problem into smaller more manageable ones, each of which is easier to solve the whole problem. Ex: breakup research papers into smaller parts |
| Means end analysis heuristic | Finding actions that reduce the gap between the starting point in the end goal. Often done by creating subgoals |
| Working backward heuristic | Work backward from the desired goal to the existing condition |
| Obstacles to problem solving | Motivation, mental sets, functional fixedness |
| Motivation | If one desires to to solve a problem, they will. If if you don't attempt to solve a problem you won't |
| Problem solving | The task is to come up with new solutions |
| Decision making | A type of problem solving in which we already know the possible options |
| Heuristics in decision-making | Shortcuts learns from experience that people use to make decisions: availability and representativeness heuristic |
| Representativeness heuristic | Make a decision based on how much something represents with characteristics from your schema or the typical case |
| Availability heuristic | make a decision on how available information is. The pastor's people can remember an instance of some events the more they expected to occur |
| Retrieval | Whatever increases that use of retrieving information increases its perceived availability. Retrieval is facilitated by how recently we've heard about the event and how distinct it is |
| Overconfidence | Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments |
| Exaggerated fear | Having an exaggerated fear about what may happen |
| Illusory superiority or the Wobegon effect | Tendency to feel above-average in order to keep us motivated and upbeat |
| Confirmation bias | When making a decision, we actively look for info that confirms our ideas |
| Belief bias | Tendency of one's pre-existing beliefs to destroy a logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions |
| Belief perseverance | Tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence |
| Hindsight bias | tendency to think that one would have known actual events were coming before they happened had one have been present then or had a reason to pay attention |
| Compensatory model | Rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria. Ex: buying a car |
| Framing effect | Framing of questions can influence our decision making |
| Sunk cost fallacy | The belief that if you already invested a lot in something, you should continue to invest in it |
| Creativity | Process of producing something new but worthwhile |
| 2 Tendencies of a creativity | 1:Motivated by Joy of creation rather than financial and material gain. 2: people tend to immerse themselves in that area and develop extensive knowledge |
| Burnout | a state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress |
| Images in the mind | Non verbal mental representations of sensory experiences |
| Language in the mind | A flexible system of symbols that enables us to communicate our ideas thoughts and feelings |
| Universal characteristics of language | Semanticity, arbitrariness, flexibility of symbols, naming, displacement, generativity / productivity (FASPND) |
| Language acquisition device (LAD) | A system in the human brain that allows language ability to emerge as long as there is sufficient input |
| Phonemes | Smallest distinctive sound unit in language (b,a,t) |
| Morphemes | Smallest unit that carries a meaning (milk and pump-kin) |
| Phonological rules | Rules for how a languages morphemes and a phonemes can be combined and spoken |
| Accent | Violation of a phonological rules in a particular language |
| Syntactical rules | Rules for how to combine these words into meaningful phrases and sentences |
| Grammar | System of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others |
| Two parts of grammar | Semantics and syntax |
| Semantics | Set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences |
| Syntax | Rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences |
| Theory of universal grammar | suggest that overall brain mechanisms for understanding and processing human language are the same for any language and therefore must be an innate human characteristic |
| Structure of language | Surface structure- how we order the sentence. Deep structure-underlying meaning of a sentence |
| Stages of language development | Cooing: begins at 4 mo, various vowel sounds. Babbling: begins at 6 mo, consonant sounds which is not an imitation of adult sppech. One Word Stage: begins around 1 year, a child starts to speak one word at a time. Two Word Stage/telegraphic speech: begins |
| Overgeneralization | Children misapply a grammar rule which proves that learning isn't learned by conditioning |
| Wug Test | Children presented with toy called wug, when a to wags are presented children are able to to complete the sentence "Here are two ____" |
| Average amount of words learned by children | Children can learn up to 1000-2000 words an hour by being exposed to daily activities |
| Three theories of language development | Imitation, operant learning, inborn universal grammar (critical period) |
| Imitation | Done by mirror neurons. Flaw: children and don't just listen and then repeat what is said, ex: no adult would say "cat stand up table" |
| Operant learning | Language acquisition is governed by operant learning principles. Flaw:this assumes that children are being constantly reinforced for using good grammar and corrected when they use bad grammar |
| Inborn universal grammar | children acquire untaught words and grammar at a rate too high to be explained through learning. Linguist: Noam Chomsky. |
| Critical Period | Children under 1 years old and can discern words and sentence breaks,however once the critical. Is over mastering the grammar of another language is very difficult. As well, when a young brain does not learn language it's language learning capacity never |
| Story of Genie Wiley | In 1970, a 13 year old girl was found in LA who had been abused by her parents in a small room with a chicken wire fence and was tied to a potty chair. Genie could not speak. When Genie was taken in, she started learning quickly however her progress soon |
| Genetic dysphasia | Rare condition in which a person is unable to learn the rules of grammar and his or her native tongue |
| Three different forms of aphasia | Damage to angular gyrus: cant read. Damage to Wernicke's area: can't understand. Damage to Broca's area: can't speak |
| Linguistic determinism | Linguistic relativity hypothesis by Whorf that says: language influences how we perceive the world, this is more evident in polylingual people |
| Bilingual advantage | People who are bilingual are able to inhibit attention to irrelevant information |
| Prejudices in language | Conveyed by words that we choose to express our everyday thoughts, ex: he instead of generic |
| Visualization | Mentally practicing activity |
| Animal communication | Animals can communicate but they cannot learn grammar which is the most important part of language. Animals use gestured communication |
Created by:
ebab
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