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243 Life Dev.
Chapter 1 (1-23, 24-47)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| "The science that seeks out to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time." | Science of human development |
| "A way to answer questions that require empirical research and data-based conclusions." | Scientific method |
| "A specific prediction that can be tested." | Hypothesis |
| "Evidence based on data from scientific observation or experiments; not theoretical." | Empirical evidence |
| What are the 6 steps of the scientific method? | 1.Curiosity > pose a question, 2.Develop a hypothesis 3.Test hypothesis >gather empirical evidence (data) 4.Draw conclusions > support or refute hypothesis 5.Report the results > share data, conclusions, and alternative explanations 6.Replicate |
| "The repitition of a study, using different participants." | Replication |
| "A general term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception." | Nature |
| "A general term for all the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived." | Nurture |
| Nature-nurture controversy | How much of any characteristic, behaviour, or emotion is a result of genes and how much is the result of specific experiences? Nature and nurture affect every human characteristic, in a dynamic interaction between genes and the environment. |
| Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) | The term used to describe an infant's unexpected death; when a seemingly healthy baby, usually between 2-6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies unexpectedly while asleep. No cure, but recommend to put babies to sleep on their backs. |
| What is the approximate age range for the "infancy" stage of development? | 0-2 years |
| What is the approximate age range for the "early childhood" stage of development? | 2-6 years |
| What is the approximate age range for the "middle childhood" stage of development? | 6-11 years |
| What is the approximate age range for the "adolescence" stage of development? | 11-18 years |
| What is the approximate age range for the "emerging adulthood" stage of development? | 18-25 |
| What is the approximate age range for the "adulthood" stage of development? | 25-65 |
| What is the approximate age range for the "late adulthood" stage of development? | 65 + |
| What are the 7 main stages of development throughout the lifespan? | 1.Infancy 2.Early childhood 3.Middle childhood 4.Adolescence 5.Emerging adulthood 6.Adulthood 7.Late adulthood |
| "An approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood." | Lifespan perspective |
| What are the 5 characteristics of development? | 1.Multidirectional 2.Multicontextual 3.Multicultural 4.Multidisciplinary 5.Plastic |
| Explain how development is multidirectional. | Change occurs in every direction, not always in a straight line. Gains and losses, predictable growth, and unexpected transformations are evident. Human traits appear and disappear, with increases, decreases, and zigzags. |
| Discontinuity (of development) | Change occurs rapidly and dramatically |
| Continuity (of development) | Growth is gradual |
| "A time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty (ex: early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning)." | Sensitive period |
| Explain how development is multicontextual. | Human lives are embedded in many contexts: historical conditions, economical constraints, family patterns, physical surroudnings, etc. All relationships the individual person has with other people & with various social contexts are interconnected. |
| "The view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life (Bronfenbrenner)." | Ecological-systems approach |
| Bronfenbrenner's ecological model consists of what 4 systems? | 1.Microsystems 2.Exosystems 3.Macrosystems 4.Chronosystem |
| What does the microsystem from Bronfenbrenner's ecological model consist of? | Family, peer groups, classroom, neighbourhood, etc. |
| What does the exosystem from Bronfenbrenner's ecological model consist of? What does it influence? | External networks such as educational, medical, employment, etc. Influences the microsystems. |
| What does the macrosystem from Bronfenbrenner's ecological model consist of? What does it influence? | Cultural patterns, political philosophies, social conditions, etc. Influences both the microsystems and the exosystems. |
| What does the mesosystem from Bronfenbrenner's ecological model consist of? | Interactions among systems (ex: parents and teachers coordinate to educate a child) |
| What does the chronosystem from Bronfenbrenner's ecological model consist of? | Importance of historical time ex: generation Z and electronics. |
| What 2 major contexts are a part of multicontextual development? | 1.Historical context 2.Socioeconomic context |
| Explain the historical context of multicontextual development. | Ages 18-25 are a sensitive period for social values > experiences and circumstances during emerging adulthood have a lifetime impact (ex: attitudes about war differ in different cohorts) |
| "A group defined by the shared age of its members, who, because they were born at about the same time, move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts." | Cohorts |
| Explain the socioeconomic context of multicontextual development. | Female-headed households, aboriginal peoples, immigrant families and families that include children with disabilities have higher-than-average rates of poverty. |
| "A person's position as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence (social class)." | Socioeconomic status (SES) |
| Explain how development is multicultural. | Many cultures (not just between nations but also within them) affect how people develop. |
| "A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviours, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behaviour and assumptions." | Culture |
| "Idea that is based on shared perceptions. Many age-related terms (childhood, adolescence, and senior citizen) are an example. Concept constructed, or made, by a society. They affect how people think and behave, what they value, ignore, and punish." | Social construction |
| "The assumption that people unlike us (different) are inferior (deficit). The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behaviour or characteristics that meet the standard." | Difference-equals-deficit error |
| "Process of cultural & psychological change that occurs when individuals come into contact with a new culture; All the adjustments immigrants have to make to adapt to their new surroundings while still maintaining their own cultural practices & beliefs." | Acculturation |
| Who is Vygotsky and what did he study? | Cognitive developmentalist > describing the interaction between culture and education. |
| "People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion. It is a social construction, not a direct outcome of biology (nurture, not nature)." | Ethnic group |
| "A group of people regarded as distinct from other groups on the basis of appearance, typically skin color. Social scientists think it is a misleading concept, as biological differences are not signified by outward appearance." | Race |
| "A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviours and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behaviour and assumptions." | Culture |
| Explain how develoment is multidisciplinary. | Numberous academic fields contribute insights (especially psychology, biology, education, sociology, etc.) |
| "Referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's, or a species', genetic inheritance." | Epigenetic |
| What 4 factors interact to influence development? | 1.Environment (physical, social, cultural) 2.Behaviour 3.Neural activity 4.Genetic activity |
| Depression is _____. Depression _____ and _____ throughout the lifespan. | developmental, increases, decreases |
| What are 11 factors linked to depression? | 1.Low serotonin in brain 2.Childhood caregiver depression 3.Lack of daylight 4.Malnutrition 5.Lack of close friends 6.Diseases 7.Disruptive event 8.Death of mother before age 10 9.Absence of father during childhood 10. Poverty 11.Low cognitive skills |
| Explain how development is plastic. | Every individual, and every trait within each individual, can be altered at any point in the lifespan. Change is ongoing, although neither random nor easy. |
| "Human development can be mouled and yet people can maintain a certain durability of identity." | Plasticity |
| "A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between a person's physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society." | Dynamic systems |
| "The idea that some people are more vulnerable than others to certain experiences, usually because of genetic differences." | Differential sensitivity |
| What 3 factors aid prediction of what is risky or helpful for healthy development and thus target intervention? | 1.Nature and nurture always interact 2.Certain periods of life are sensitive periods, more affected by particular events than others 3.Differential sensitivity |
| "A comprehensive and organized explanation of many phenomena > generalities." | Theory |
| "A more limited explanation of phenomena, may be proven false." | Hypothesis |
| "Observations, questions, theory > hypothesis that can be tested > data collected through research > results are reported." | Scientific method |
| "A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth, Provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development." | Developmental theory |
| "(Sigmund Freud) A theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behaviour." | Psychoanalytic theory |
| What are Freud's 6 stages of psychosexual stages? | 1.Oral (mouth) 2.Anal (toilet training) 3.Phallic (male genitals) 4.Latency (break in sexual needs) 5.Genital (sexual stimulation and relationships) |
| According to Freud, the early stages of development provide what? | The foundation for adult behaviour |
| _____ believed that at each psychozexual stage, sensual satisfaction (from stimulation of the mouth, anus, or genitals) is linked to developmental needs, challenges, and conflicts. | Freud |
| What are Erikson's 8 psychosocial stages throughout the lifespan? | 1.Trust & mistrust 2.Autonomy vs shame & doubt 3.Initiative vs guilt 4.Industry vs inferiority (learning new skills or being unable to do so) 5.Identity vs role confusion 6.Intimacy vs isolation 7.Generativity vs stagnation 8.Integrity vs despair |
| Erikson claimed that his psychosocial theory was epigenetic, because... | He wanted to stress that the social nevironment strongly influences genes and biological impulses. |
| Like Freud, Erikson believed that... (development) | adults' problems echo their childhood conflicts |
| "A theory of human development that describes the laws and processes by which observable behaviour is learned (behaviour is influenced by the social environment and by how people are rewarded or punished when they act in certain ways." | Learning theory |
| Name 2 learning theories. | 1.Behaviourism 2.Social learning theory |
| "(Watson) A learning theory based on the idea that behaviours can be trained and changed in response to stimuli in the environment." | Behaviourism |
| Unlike Freud and Erikson, Watson believed that... | Early habits and patterns can be unlearned, even reversed. |
| Opposed to Freud's idea of unconscious urges, Watson believed that... | Scientists should examine only what they could observe and measure. |
| What theory did Watson come up with? | Behaviourism (learning theory) |
| "According to behaviourism, the process by which responses become linked to a particular stimuli & learning takes place. The word itself is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice." | Conditioning |
| What theory did Pavlov come up with? | Conditioning |
| "A learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) gradually comes to be connected with a neutral stimulus (such as a particular sound) that had no special meaning before the learning process began." | Operant conditioning |
| "A technique for conditioning a particular behaviour in which that behaviour is followed by somethinf desired, such as good for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person." | Reinforcement |
| In what way has the science of human development benefited from behavioursim? | Theory's emphasis on the origins and consequences of observed behaviour > many actions that seem to be genetic, or to be resulted from deeply rooted emotional problems, are actually learned > if something is learned it can be unlearned > plasticity. |
| "An extension of behaviourism that emphasizes that other people influence each person's behaviour > even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and limitation of other people." | Social learning theory |
| "(Piaget) A theory of human development that focuses on changes in how peole think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours." | Cognitive theory |
| Cognition is not only thinking, but also ____, ____, and ____. | attitudes, beliefs, behaviours |
| According to Piaget's cognitive theory, development occurs in what 4 major age-related periods? | 1.Sensorimotor 2.Preoperational 3.Concrete operational 4.Formal operational |
| According to Piaget's cognitive theory of development, the "sensorimotor" stage occurs at what age? What does it encompass? | 0-2 years old, motor abilities to udnerstand the world, no reflection |
| According to Piaget's cognitive theory of development, the "preoperational" stage occurs at what age? What does it encompass? | 2-6 years old, egocentric learning, magic and poetic |
| According to Piaget's cognitive theory of development, the "concrete operational" stage occurs at what age? What does it encompass? | 6-11 years old, understand and apply logical principles, interpret rationally, still have limited thinking |
| According to Piaget's cognitive theory of development, the "formal operational" stage occurs at what age? What does it encompass? | 12-adulthood, analytical and logical, not just emotional |
| "A state of mental balance which humans seek" | Cognitive equilibrium |
| "A state of mental imbalance which intitially creates confusion when a new experience is jarring and incomprehensible. Leads to growth." | Cognitive disequilibrium |
| What are the 2 types of adaptation to experiences of cognitive disequilibrium (Piaget)? | 1.Assimilation (new experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas) 2.Accomodation (old ideas are restructured to include, or accomodate, new experiences) |
| Equilibrium > new ideas or experiences > disequilibrium > adaptation _____ or _____ > new equilibrium | assimilation, accomodation |
| "A theory of human behaviour that focuses on the family as a unit or functioning system, with each member having a role to play and rules to respect." | Family systems theory |
| "(Maslow) A theory that stresses the potential of all human beings for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background." | Humanism |
| What are Maslow's 5 stages of hierarchy of needs (broadest to highest, pyramid-shape)? | 1.Physiological (food, water, shelter) 2.Safety (felling protected from injury & death) 3.Love & belonging 4.Esteem (Being accepted by the wider community & by oneself) 5.Self-actualization (becoming true to oneself, fulfilling unique potential) |
| "(Darwin) Nature insures that each species 1.survives and 2.reproduces. Many human impulses, needs, and behaviours evolved to help humans survive and thrive over 100 000 years." | Evolutionary theory |
| Freud emphasized _____ urges. | unconscious |
| Learning theory focuses on the fact that people's behaviours are influenced by... | ... their social evironment |
| What are the 2 learning theories? | 1.Behaviourism 2.Social learning theory |
| Behaviourism contends that poeple have learned most of what they do either through _____ or _____. | association, reinforcement |
| Social learning theory states that individuals can learn by ____ and _____. | observation, modelling |
| Family systems theory focuses on... | ...the interrelationships of family members and how one individual affects the others. |
| Humanism recognizes the universal human needs that must be met for people to reach the highest level, _________, thereby becoming the best they can be. | self-actualization |
| What are the 3 basic types of scientific research methods? (not designs) | 1.Scientific observation 2.The experiment 3.The survey |
| "A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behaviour in a systematic and objective manner - in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data." | Scientific observation |
| "A research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between 2 variables by manipulating one (the independent variable) and then observing and recording the ensuing changes in the other (dependent variable)." | Experimental research |
| "In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds." | Dependent variable |
| In research, the group that gets a particular treatment, Independent variable. | Experimental group |
| In research, the group that does not get a particular treatment. Dependent variable. | Control group |
| "A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other mean. Quick and direst way to obtain data." | Survey |
| What are the 3 downfalls of surveys as a research method? | 1.Not always accurate (ex:some people lie, others change their mind) 2.Surveys answers are influenced by wording and the sequence of questions 3.Respondent present themselves as they would like to be perceived |
| "An in-depth study of one person, usually requiring personal interviews to collect background information and various follow-up discussion, tests, questionnaires, and so on." | Case study |
| What are the 2 downfalls of case studies as a research method? | 1.Assumptions and interpretations of the researcher are more likely to bias the results than would a suvrey that has been validated on hundreds of people 2.Case study applies only to one person, who may be quite unlike other people |
| What are the 3 basic research methods used to capture the dynamism over the lifespan (designs)? | 1.Cross-sectional 2.Longitudinal 3.Cross-sequential |
| "A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed." | Longitudinal research |
| What are the 4 drwabacks of longitudinal research? | 1.May withdraw, move to an unknown address, die 2.Increasing awareness of questions or goals of study > cause participants to change to "suit" study 3.Historical data - isn't current or relevant by the time it is gathered 4.Requires years of data |
| "A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics." | Cross-sectional research |
| "A hybrid research in which researchers study several groups of people of different ages (cross-sectional approach) and then follow these groups over the years (longitudinal approach)." | Cross-sequential research |
| What are the 2 drawbacks of the cross-sequential research? | 1.Time consuming, similar drwabacks to longitudinal research 2.$$$ |
| Which is the best method (yields the best information) out of the cross-sectional design, cross-sequential design, and longitudinal research? | Cross-sequential |
| Surveys are quick, and case studies are detailed, but both are vulnerable to ____. | bias |
| What are 3 potential hazards of science? | 1.Misinterpreting correlation 2.Depending too heavily on numbers 3. Ignoring ethics |
| "Number that indicates the degree of relationships between 2 variables: likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). Indicates that 2 variables are related, not that one variable causes the other." | Correlation |
| Positive correlation | Both variables tend to increase together or decrease together. |
| Negative correlation | One variable tends to increase while the other decreases. |
| Zero correlation | No connection is evident |
| Correlation is not _____. | causation |
| "Research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales." | Quantitative research |
| What are 2 advantages of quantitiative research? | Data easier to replicate and less open to bias |
| "Research that considers qualities instead of quantities. Descriptions of particular conditions and particpants' expressed ideas are often part of these studies." | Qualitative research |
| What is an advantage of qualitative research? | Reflects cultural and contextual diversity |
| What is a disadvantage of qualitative research? | More vulnerable to bias and harder to replicate |
| REB stands for what and what is its purpose? | Research ethics board. A group that permits only research that follows certain guidelines (most educational and medical institutions in Canada). |
| According to the REB, what are the 4 guiding principles to resolve how the protection of participants may conflict with the goals of science? | 1.Respect for the dignity of persons (non-discrimmination, informed consent, confidentiality) 2.Responsible caring (maximize benefits, minimizing harm) 3.Integrity in relationships (avoidance of any conflict of interest) 4.Responsibility to society |
| According to the REB, scientists ar obliged to promote ____, ____, and the obvious prohibitions of ____ or ____. | accuracy, honesty, fraud, misrepresentations |
| Correlation is not causation. Two variables may be related, not necessarily because one causes the other, but perhaps because... | ... a third variable affects both |
| Culture, ethnicity and race are ____ ____, concepts created by society. | social constructions |
| Culture includes ____ and ____. | beliefs, patterns |
| Ethnicity refers to ____ ____. | ancestral heritage |
| Development is _____, which means that although inborn traits and childhood experiences affect later development, patterns and possibilities can change throughout life. | plastic |
| ____ _____ focuses on the idea that a change in one part of a system -be it a body, a family, or a society- affects every other part of the system and the system as a whole. | Systems theory |
| ____ stresses that all humans have basic needs that must be met for people to reach their full potential, becoming self-actualized. | Humanism |
| _____ ____ traces the inborn impulses that arise from past millenia of human life, and that enable humans to survive and reproduce successfully. This perspective explains some irrational fears as well as come noble human traits. | Evolutionary theory |
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jarnol33
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