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Psych 243-Exam 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Science of Human Development | Seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time. |
| nature: | Traits, capacities, limitations each individual inherits genetically from parents (at conception). |
| nurture | All environmental influences that affect development (after conception). |
| Critical Period | When a particular type of development growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen. |
| Sensitive Period | When a certain type of development is most likely, although it may still happen later. |
| dynamic-systems theory: | A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society. |
| Four Characteristics of Development | -multidirectional, multicontextual, multidisciplinary, Plasticity |
| life-span perspective: | Study of human development that takes into account all phases of life. |
| ecological-systems approach: | The view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life. |
| mirror neurons: | Cells in an observer’s brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would if the observer had actually performed that action. |
| plasticity | Human traits can be molded (as plastic can be), yet people maintain a certain durability of identity (as plastic does). |
| scientific method | A way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions. (raise question, develop hypothesis, test hypothesis, draw conclusions, report results) |
| scientific observation: | A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants’ behavior in a systematic and objective manner. |
| survey: | A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questions, or some other means. |
| independent variable: | In an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable. (Also called experimental variable.) |
| dependent variable: | In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. |
| cross-sectional research: | A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics. |
| longitudinal research: | A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed. |
| cohort: | : A group defined by the shared ages of its members. |
| cross-sequential research: | A hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (cross-sectional) and then follow those groups over the years (longitudinal). (Also called cohort-sequential research or timesequential research.) |
| correlation: | A number between +1.0 and -1.0 that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of their likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). |
| quantitative research: | Research data expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales. |
| qualitative research: | Research that considers qualities instead of quantities. |
| code of ethics: | A set of moral and specific guidelines principles that members of a profession or group are expected to follow. |
| Institutional Review Board (IRB) | A group that exists within most educational and medical institutions whose purpose is to ensure that research follows established guidelines and remains ethical. |
| developmental theories: | A framework for explaining patterns and problems of development. |
| psychoanalytic | (Freud, Erikson) Irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior |
| Behavioral (learning theory) | ( Watson, Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura) Study of observable behavior; describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned. |
| Cognitive | (Piaget) Focus on changes in how people think over time; also thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. |
| Freud's Stages | Oral (birth-1), Anal (1-3), Phallic (3-6), Latency (6-11), Genital (11-adults) |
| Erickson's Stages | Trust/Mistrust (birth-1), Autonomy/ Shame and Doubt, (1-3), Initiative/ Guilt (3-6), Industry/Inferiority (6-11), Identity/Role Confusion (adolescence), Intimacy/Isolation (young adults), Generativity/Stagnation (mid adult), integrity/Dispair (late adult |
| Behaviorism: | The study of observable behavior, and the theory (learning theory) explaining the acquisition of habits and competencies. |
| classical conditioning | The learning processes by which a meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus that had no special meaning before conditioning. |
| operant conditioning | The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired or by something unwanted in order to promote or prevent an action. |
| reinforcement | A technique for conditioning behavior in which that behavior is followed by something desired. |
| social learning theory | Emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior, involving learning by observation and imitation. |
| Piaget's Periods of Cognitive Development | Sensorimotor (birth-2), Preoperational (2-6), Concrete operational (6-11), Formal operational (12-adulthood) |
| cognitive theory | Theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. |
| information processing | A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data. |
| selective attention | The ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others. |
| sociocultural theory | Development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces. |
| selective adaptation: | Process by which genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected and, over generations, become more frequent. |
| -Zygote | single cell that is formed from the fusing of two gametes, a sperm and an ovum |
| -DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) | molecules that contain chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins |
| Chromosome | One of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that each cell of the human body contains |
| -Embryo | is the developing human organism btw the 3rd and 8th week if conception |
| Gene | a small section of the chromosome; the basic unit for the transmission of heredity. String of chemicals that provide instructions for the cell to manufacture various proteins |
| Gamete | reproductive cell (sperm or ovum) that only has 23 chromosomes |
| Methylation | alter genes |
| Allele | any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur |
| polymorphic | trait influenced by many genes |
| Multifactorial | trait affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental in expression |
| single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) | Each variation in trait |
| How proteins mad | in cell in nucleus are 46 chromosomes, chromosomes are in double helix, triplet pairs form amino acid which generates code to generate proteins |
| Genotype | an organism's entire genetic inheritance or genetic potential |
| Phenotype | the observable characteristics of a person |
| Genome | the full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual a member of a certain species |
| Monozygotic twins | one zygote splitting (identical) -incomplete split = conjoined twins |
| Dizygotic twins | two eggs fertilized only share ½ of the genes |
| Additive gene | a gene that adds something to some aspect of the phenotype |
| dominant-recessive pattern | he interaction of a pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reveals the influence of one allele (dominant) more than the other (recessive) |
| Carrier | a person whose genotype includes a recessive gene |
| X-linked | a gene carried on the x-chromosome. If a male inherited it from his mother he expresses that trait because the Y from his father has no countering gene (ex. colorblindness) |
| Germinal period | the first 2 weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation |
| ectopic pregnancy | fertilized egg implants in the fallopian tube, not viable |
| Gestational Age | conception |
| implantation | 10 days after conception, attaches to tissue lining uterus |
| Embryonic period | the stage of prenatal development (3-8week) where basic forms of body structures, including internal organs develop (14 day primitive streak forms, 4th week: head, eyes, nose, mouth, heart, 5th week: limb buds, start seeing skin and bone, intestines) |
| cephalocaudal | head to tail |
| proximodistal | near to far |
| Fetal period | 9th week after conception until birth, the fetus grows in size and matures in functioning ( 3rd mon ed all body parts, 25days forebrain, mid, hind, 28-36 weeks brain starts folding, 9th week sex organs) |
| Fetus | developing human organism from start of 9th week until birth |
| Ultrasound | image of a fetus produced by high frequency sound waves (sonogram) |
| age of viability | 22 weeks, fetus may survive outside the womb (would require extensive medical attention) |
| Apgar scale | a quick assessment of a newborn's body functioning and health: color, heartbeat, reflex, muscle tone, respiratory effort. Scored 0,1,2 at 1min and 5min after birth (ideal score is rarely attained) |
| Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) | measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors including 20 reflexes |
| Couvade: | symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by the fathers |
| Kangaroo Care | child care technique in which new mothers hold their baby between breasts |
| syndrome | a cluster of distinct characteristics that occur together |
| Down syndrome: (trisomy-21 | 3 copies of chromosome 21 (47overall) -distinctive characteristics: thick tongue, round face, slanted eyes -May have hearing, heart, muscle, height problems |
| Teratogen | any agent including viruses, drugs, and chemicals that can impair prenatal development, resulting in birth defects or complications |
| behavioural teratogens | agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impair the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning |
| Anoxia | lack of oxygen that if prolonged can cause brain damage or death |
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) | a cluster of birth defects: happens usually in early pregnancy |
| Fetal Alcohol Effect FAE | later pregnancy, hyperactivity, poor concentration, impairs social reasoning |
| Low birth weight (LBW): | body weight less than 2500g (5.5lbs) -very LBW (VLBW): less than 1500g (3lbs 5oz) -extremely LBW (ELBW): less than 1000g (2lbs 3oz) |
| preterm birth | a birth occurring 3 or more weeks before full term 38weeks |
| heritability | (stat that indicated what % of a particular trait within a particular population in particular content can be traced to genes) 90% |
| head-sparing: | a biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth. The brain is the last part of the body to be damaged by malnutrition |
| Neurons: | billions of nerve cells in the CNS, especially the brain |
| Cortex | outer layers of the brain in humans and other mammals. Most thinking, feeling, and sensing involves the cortex |
| Prefrontal Cortex: | the area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control |
| Axon: | a fiber that extends from the neuron and transmits electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons |
| Dendrite | a fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons -Each neuron has single axon and numerous dendrites |
| Synapse | the intersection btw the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another. |
| Neurotransmitters: | a brain chemical that carries inform from the axon of the sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron |
| transient exuberance | the great but temporary increase in the # of dendrites that develop in an infant's brain during 1st 2yrs |
| Pruning: | when applied to brain development the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die |
| Greenough | experiences influence how the brain develops and matures -2 categorization schemes depending on the type of info stored -experience-expectant -experience-dependant |
| experience-expectant | enviro info that is common in all people |
| experience-dependant | important and specific info unique to person |
| Plasticity | ability to be modified or changed (brain is high) |
| own-race effect: | more accurate at distinguishing faces of own species and ethnic group |
| Prosopagnosia | facial blindness |
| Shaken Baby Syndrome (SBS): | life-threatening injury that occurs when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth, moth that ruptures blood vessels in the brain and breaks neural connections -life long intellectual impairment, visual impairments, death |
| Self-righting | inborn drive to remedy a developmental deficit; literally to return to sitting or standing upright after being tripped over. People of all ages have this for emotional and physical imbalance |
| Sensation | the response of a sensory system which it detects a stimulus |
| Perception | he mental processing of sensory info when the brain interprets a sensation |
| Neonatal Infant Pain Scale | uses 5 parameters to assess pain: facial expressions, cry, breathing patterns, movement of arms and legs, state of arousal |
| Binocular vision: | ability to focus the two eyes in a coordinated manner to see one image |
| REM (rapid eye movement) sleep | a stage of sleep characterized by flicking eyes behind closed lids, dreaming, and rapid brain waves -REM sleep declines over early weeks as does transitional sleep (half-awake) -thought that brain is wiring during dreaming, solidify learning processes |
| reflex: | unlearned, involuntary action or movement in response to a stimulus -@ birth, breathing, sucking, stepping, grasping (hands and feet), moro (sudden drop infant will throughout arms and legs like starfish) |
| -vestigial reflexes | reflexes that is not crucial to survival but has evolutionary importance |
| gross motor skills: | physical abilities involving large body movements such as walking and jumping -emerge directly from reflexes and proceed in a cephalocaudal and proximodistal direction |
| fine motor skills: | physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing or picking up a coin |
| Pincer movement: | use of thumb and forefinger to pick up objects -masted end of first year and self feeding |
| Dynamic sensory-motor systems | entire package of sensation and motor skills furthers 3 goals: -social interaction -comfort -learning |
| Immunizations | a process that stimulates the body's immune system to defend against attack by a particular contagious disease. Can be accomplished naturally (by having the disease) or through vaccinations |
| Colostrum | thick, high-calorie fluid, secreaded by mothers breast after birth (after 3 days, begins to produce milk) |
| protein-calorie malnutrition | a condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food of any kind. This deprivation can result in several illnesses, severe weight loss and death |
| stunting | a failure of children to grow to normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition |
| wasting | a tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition |
| Marasmus | a disease of severe protein-calorie malnutrition during early infancy, in which growth stops, body tissues waste away, and the infant eventually dies |
| Kwashiorkor | a disease of chronic malnutrition during childhood, in which a protein deficiency makes the child more vulnerable to other diseases such as measles, diarrhea, and influenza |
| sensorimotor intelligence | Paiget’s term for the way infants think - by using their senses and motor skills - during the 1st period of cognitive development |
| Piaget's 6 stages of infant cognition | Birth to 1 month: simple reflexes 1-4mon: primary circular reactions 4-8mon: secondary circular reactions 8-12mon: coordination of secondary circular reactions 12-18mon: Tertiary circular reactions 18-24mon: mental representations |
| Object permanence: | realization that an object remains even if it cannot be seen -8 months begin to show signs of understanding |
| A-no-B error: | he tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found rather than in the new location where it was last hidden |
| little scientist: | a stage five toddler (12-18mon) who experiments without anticipating results, using trial and error in active and creative exploration |
| deferred imitation | a sequence in which an infant first perceives something done by someone else and then performs the same action hours or days later |
| EEG (electroencephalogram) | a technique that measures electrical activity in the top layers of the brain, where the cortex it |
| Mirror Neurons | cells in an observer's brain that respond to an action performed by someone else in the same way they would is the observer had actually performed that action |
| information-processing theory | a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output |
| Affordance | an opportunity for perception and interaction that is offered by a person, place, or object in the environment |
| dynamic perception | perception that is primed to focus on movement and change |
| reminder session | a perceptual experience that is intended to help a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience, without testing whether the person remembers it at the moment |
| child-directed speech | the high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants |
| holophrase | a single word used to express a complete and meaningful thought (ex. Dada?) |
| naming explosion | sudden increase in an infant's vocab, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18mon of age |
| Language Acquisition Device (LAD): | Chomsky’s term for the hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocab, and intonation |
| Hybrid Theory | a perspective that combines various aspects of different theories to explain how language, or any other developmental phenomenon occurs |
| Colic: | bouts of uncontrollable crying: probably immature digestion |
| social smile | a smile evoked by human face, normally 1st evident in infants about 6 weeks old |
| Cortisol | primary stress hormone; fluctuations in body’s level affect human emotion |
| Separation Anxiety | an infant's distress when a caregiver leaves, most obvious 9-14mon |
| Stranger Wariness | an infant's expression of concern(quiet stare while clinging to familiar person, or look of fear) when a stranger appears |
| Shame | when child thinks they have failed to meet standards and expectations (want to hide or disappear) |
| embarrassment | child feels confused or awkward with unwanted attention |
| empathy | allows them to feel others emotions (sad when playmate is crying) |
| self-awareness | a person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those other people |
| mirror/rouge test: | 9-24mon placed in front of mirror with red dot on nose, if they touched their nose they knew the mirror was them |
| Temperament | Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It is measured by a person's typical response to the environment (biologically based) |
| Effort control | able to regulate attention and emotion, to self soothe |
| Surgency | active, social, not shy, exuberant |
| Synchrony | Coordinated, rapid, and smooth Exchange responses between a caregiver and an infant |
| Attachment | A bond that an infant forms with a caregiver, a tie that binds them together in space and injures over time |
| Maternal deprivation | emotional trauma suffered by infants who lose their mother or beloved caregiver |
| stages of attachment | birth-6weeks: preattachment 6 week-8mon: attachment in the making 8mon-2yrs: Classic secure attachment 2-6yrs: attachment as launching pad 6-12yrs: mutual attachment 12-18yrs: new attachment figures 18yrs on: attachment revisited |
| four types of attachment | (ainsworth) Secure attachment insecure-avoidant attachment insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment disorganized attachment |
| Strange situation | a laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by invoking infants reactions to the stress of various adults coming and going in an unfamiliar playroom (Ainsworth) |
| Social referencing | Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. The other person becomes a social reference |
| working model | in cognitive theory, a set of assumptions that an individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences |
| Proximal parenting | caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching |
| distal parenting | caregiving practices that involve remaining distance from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching |
| Family systems theory | focuses on the family as a unit in which each member has a certain role and number of responsibilities |
| Allocare: | Literally, “ other- care”, the care of children by people other than the biological parents |
| Family Day Care | Child Care that includes several children of various ages and usually occurs in the home of a woman who is paid to provide it |
| Center daycare | child care that occurs in a place specially designed for that purpose, where several paid adults care for many children. |
| just right: | the tendency of children to insist on having things done in a particular way. This can include clothes, food, bedtimes routines, ect. (age 3-5) |
| injury control( or harm reduction) | practices that are aimed at anticipating, controlling, and preventing dangerous activities; these practices reflect the beliefs that accidents are not random and that injuries can be made less harmful if proper controls are in place |
| Primary prevention: | actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted events or circumstances, such as injury, disease, or abuse (ex. Universal immunizations) |
| Secondary prevention | actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, such as stopping a car before it hits pedestrian or installing traffic lights at a dangerous intersection |
| Tertiary prevention | actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment that are taken after an adverse event Checkers and that are aimed at reducing the harm of preventing disability |
| myelination | the process by which axons become coated with myelin ( white matter), a fatty substance speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron |
| perseveration | The tendency to persevere in, or stick to, once thought or action for a long time |
| corpus callosum | a long, thick band of nerve fibers that connect the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allow communication between them |
| lateralization | do specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity |
| limbic system: | the major brain region crucial to the development of emotional expression and regulation; it's three main areas are the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the hypothalamus |
| Amygdala | a tiny brain structure that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety |
| hippocampus | a brain structure that is a central processor of memory, especially memory for locations |
| hypothalamus | a brain area that responds to the amygdala and the hippocampus to produce hormones that activate other parts of the body and brain |
| pre-operational intelligence | Paiget’s term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6; it includes the language and Imagination ( which involves symbolic thought), but Logical, operational thinking is not yet possible. (Paiget’s second of four periods) |
| Symbolic thought | concept that an object or word can stand for something else, including something pretended or something not seen |
| animism | the belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive |
| Piaget’s four limitations that make logic difficult until about age 6 | centration, focus on appearance, static reasoning, and irreversibility |
| centration | a characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child focuses on one idea, excluding all others |
| Egocentrism | Piaget's term for young children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective (not selfishness) |
| focus on appearance | the characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent. |
| static reasoning | the characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be. |
| irreversibility | the characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change has occurred. |
| Conservation | the principle that the amount of a substance Remains the Same (ie. is conserved) even when its appearance change |
| zone of proximal development (ZPD) | vygotsky's term for the intellectual Arena where new cognitive and physical skills can be mastered |
| scaffolding | temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner Master the next task in a given learning process |
| overimitation | the tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of a behavior to be learned; common among two to six year olds when they're imitating adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient |
| Theory- Theory | the idea that children attempt to explain everything they see in here |
| Theory of mind: | a person's theory of what other people might be thinking. |
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