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Psych Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Alcohol | A variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol |
| Biological Rhythms | Periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning |
| Cannabis | The hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived |
| Circadian rhythms | The 24-hour biological clock found in many humans and many other species |
| Consciousness | One's awareness of internal and external stimuli |
| Dissociation | A splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness |
| Electrocardiograph (EKG) | A device that records the contractions of the heart |
| Electroencephalograph (EEG) | A device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp |
| Electromyograph (EMG) | A device that records muscular activity and tension |
| Electrooculograph (EOG) | A device that records eye movements |
| Hallucinogins | A diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional functioning, marked most prominently by distortions in sensory and perceptual experience |
| Hypnosis | A systematic procedure that typically produces a higher state of suggestability |
| Insomnia | Chronic problems in getting adequate sleep |
| Latent Content | According to Freud, the hidden or disguised meaning of the events in a dream |
| Manifest Content | According to Freud, the plot of a dream at a surface level |
| MDMA | A compound drug related to both amphetamines and hallucinogens, especially mescaline; commonly called ecstasy |
| Meditation | A family of mental exercises in which a conscious attempt is made to focus attention in a nonanalytical way |
| Narcolepsy | A disease marked by sudden irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods |
| Narcotics | Drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain |
| Non-REM (NREM) sleep | Sleep stages 1-4, which are marked by an absence of REM, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG activity |
| Physical Dependence | The condition that exists when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness |
| Psychoactive Drugs | Chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning |
| Psychological Dependence | The condition that exists when a person must continue to take a drug in order to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving for the drug |
| REM sleep | A deep stage of sleep marked by REM, high frequency brain waves, and dreaming |
| Sedatives | Sleep inducing drugs that tend to decrease CNS activation and behavioral activity |
| Sleep apnea | A sleep disorder characterized by frequent reflexive gasping for air that awakens the sleep and disrupts sleep |
| Slow-wave Sleep | Sleep stages 3 & 4 during which low frequency Delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings |
| Somnambulism | Arising and walking about while remaining asleep; sleepwalking |
| Stimulants | Drugs that tend to increase CNS activation and behavioral activity |
| Tolerance | A progressive decrease in a person's responsiveness to a drug |
| Rosalind Cartwright | Proposed that dreams provide an opportunity to work through everyday problems (cognitive problem solving view) |
| William Dement | Sleep researcher |
| Sigmund Freud | Believed that the principle purpose of dreams is sub-conscious wish fulfillment |
| Ernest Hilgard | Dissociation theory of hypnosis: hypnotized persons are in altered states of consciousness (hypnosis creates a split dissociation between two aspects of consciousness) |
| J. Alan Hobson | Believed that dreams are the byproduct of bursts of activity emanating from subcortical areas in the brain (activation synthesis model) |
| Encoding | Involves forming a memory code |
| Storage | Involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time |
| Retrieval | Involves recovering information from memory stores |
| Attention | Involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events |
| Elaboration | Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding |
| Imagery | The creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered; can also be used to enrich encoding |
| Dual-Coding Theory | Memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall |
| Sensory Memory | Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only for a fraction of a second |
| Atkinson-Shriffrin model of memory storage | Proposes that memory is made up of 3 stores. Sensory memory, STM, and LTM. |
| Short-Term Memory (STM)/Working Memory | A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds |
| Rehearsal | The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information |
| Chunk | A group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit |
| Phonological Loop | Used for recitation in STM; evolved to facilitate the acquisition of language |
| Visuospatial Sketchpad | Permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images |
| Central Executive System | Controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention and dividing the attention as needed |
| Episodic Buffer | A temporary, limited capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate information and serves as an interface between working memory and long-term memory |
| Long-Term Memory (LTM) | An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time |
| Flashbulb Memories | Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events |
| Schema | An organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event |
| Semantic Network | Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts |
| Connectionist/Parallel Distributed Processing (DPD) Models | Assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks |
| Misinformation Effect | Occurs when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information |
| Source Monitoring | The process of making inferences about the origins of the memories |
| Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus) | Graphs retention and forgetting over time |
| Retention | Refers to the proportion of material retained (remembered) |
| Retention Interval | The length of time between the presentation of materials to be remembered and the measurement of forgetting |
| Recall Measure [of retention] | Requires participants to reproduce information on their own without any cues |
| Recognition Measure [of retention] | Requires participants to select previously learned information from an array of options |
| Relearning Measure [of retention] | Requires a participant to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned if before |
| Decay Theory | Proposes that forgetting occurs because memory fades with time |
| Interference Theory | Proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material |
| Retroactive Interference | Occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information |
| Proactive Interference | Occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information |
| Encoding Specificity Principle | States that the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory cycle |
| Repression | Refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious |
| Retrograde Amnesia | When a person loses memories for events that occurred prior to the injury |
| Anterograde Amnesia | When a person loses memories for events that occur after the injury |
| Consolidation | A hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory |
| Declarative Memory System | Handles factual information |
| Procedural Memory System | Houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional memories |
| Episodic Memory System | Made up of chronological, or temporarily dated, recollections of personal experiences |
| Semantic Memory System | Contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned |
| Prospective Memory | Involves remembering to perform actions in the future |
| Retrospective Memory | Involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information |
| Mnemonic Devices | Strategies for enhancing memory |
| Serial-Position Effect | Occurs when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle |
| Link Method | Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together |
| Method of Loci | Involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations |
| Acquisition | The formation of a new conditioned response tendency. |
| Avoidance learning | A conflict situation in which a choice must be made between two unattractive goals. |
| Behavior modification | A systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning. |
| Behavioral contract | A written agreement outlining a promise to adhere to the contingencies of a behavior modification program. |
| Classical conditioning | A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. |
| Conditioned response (CR) | A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning. |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. |
| Continuous reinforcement | Reinforcing every instance of a designated response. |
| Cumulative recorder | A graphic record of reinforcement and responding in a Skinner box as a function of time. |
| Discriminative stimuli | Cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response. |
| Elicit | To draw out or bring forth. |
| Emit | To send forth. |
| Escape learning | A type of learning in which an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation. |
| Evaluative conditioning | Efforts to transfer the emotion attached to a UCS to a new CS. |
| Extinction | The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency. |
| Fixed-interval (FI) schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. |
| Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses. |
| Higher-order conditioning | A type of conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus. |
| Instinctive drift | The tendency for an animal’s innate responses to interfere with conditioning processes. |
| Intermittent reinforcement | A reinforcement schedule in which a designated response is reinforced only some of the time. |
| Latent learning | Learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs. |
| Law of effect | The principle that if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened. |
| Learning | A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience. |
| Negative symptoms | Schizophrenic symptoms that involve behavioral deficits, such as flattened emotions, social withdrawal, apathy, impaired attention, and poverty of speech. |
| Observational learning | A type of learning that occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. |
| Operant conditioning | A form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences. |
| Phobias | Irrational fears of specific objects or situations. |
| Positive reinforcement | Reinforcement that occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. |
| Primary reinforcers | Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. |
| Punishment | An event that follows a response that weakens or suppresses the tendency to make that response. |
| Reinforcement | An event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that response. |
| Reinforcement contingencies | The circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers. |
| Resistance to extinction | In operant conditioning, the phenomenon that occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer for it has been terminated. |
| Schedule of reinforcement | A specific presentation of reinforcers over time. |
| Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers | Stimulus events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers. |
| Shaping | The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response. |
| Skinner box | A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled. |
| Spontaneous recovery | In classical conditioning, the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus. |
| Stimulus discrimination | The phenomenon that occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. |
| Stimulus generalization | The phenomenon that occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. |
| Trial | In classical conditioning, any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli. |
| Unconditioned response (UCR) | An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. |
| Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning. |
| Variable-interval (VI) schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. |
| Variable-ratio (VR) schedule | A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses. |
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