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7Memory, part Chap4
terms
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| amnesia | a failure of memory caused by physical injury, disease, drug use, or psychological trauma |
| basic level | the level of categorization that can be retrieved from memory most quickly and used most efficiently |
| chunking | the process of taking single items of information and recoding them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle |
| concepts | mental representations of kinds or categories of items and ideas |
| contextual distinctiveness | the assumption that the serial position effect can be altered by the context and the distinctiveness of the experience being recalled |
| declarative memory | memory for information such as facts and events |
| elaborative rehearsal | a technique for improving memory by enriching the encoding information |
| encoding | the process by which a mental representation is formed in memory |
| encoding specificity | the principle that subsequent retrieval of information is enhanced if cues received at the time of recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding |
| engram | the physical memory tract for information in the brain |
| episodic memories | long-term memories for autobiographical events and the contexts in which they occurred |
| exemplars | members of categories that people have encountered |
| explicit uses of memory | conscious effort to encode or receive information through memory process |
| iconic memory | memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of information to be stored for very brief durations |
| implicit uses of memory | availability of information through memory processes without conscious effort to encode or recover information |
| level of processing theory | a theory that suggests that the deeper the level at which information was processed, the more likely it is to be retrieved |
| long term memory (LTM) | memory processes associated with the preservation of information for retrieval at any later time |
| memory | the mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information |
| metamemory | implicit or explicit knowledge about memory abilities and effective memory strategies; cognition about memory |
| mnemonics | strategies or devices that use a familiar information during the encoding of new information to enhance subsequent access to the information in memory |
| primacy effect | improved memory for items at the start of a list |
| priming | in the assessment of implicit memory, the advantage conferred by prior exposure to a word or situation |
| proactive interference | circumstances in which past memories make is more difficult to encode and retrieve new information |
| procedural memory | memory for how things get done; the way perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills are acquired, retained, and used |
| prototype | the most representative example of a category |
| recall | a method of retrieval in which an individual is required to reproduce the information previously presented |
| recency effect | improved memory for items at the end of a list |
| recognition | a method of retrieval in which an individual is required to identify stimuli as having been experienced |
| reconstructive memory | the process of putting information together based on general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory representation |
| retrieval | the recovery of stored information from memory |
| retrieval cues | internally or externally generated stimuli available to help with the retrieval of memory |
| retroactive interference | circumstances in which the formation of new memories makes it more difficult to recover older memories |
| schemas | general conceptual frameworks, or clusters of knowledge, regarding objects, people, and situations; knowledge packages that encode generalizations about the structure of the environment |
| semantic memories | generic, categorical memories, such as the meanings of words and concepts |
| serial position effect | a characteristic of memory retrieval in which the recall of the beginning and end items on the list is often better than recall of items appearing in the middle |
| short term memory (STM) | memory processes associated with preservation of recent experiences and with retrieval of information from long-term memory; short term memory is of limited capacity and stores information for only short length of time without rehearsal |
| storage | the retention of encoded material over time |
| transfer-appropriate processing | the perspective that suggests that memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding matches the processes carried out at retrieval |
| working memory | a memory resource that is used to accomplish tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension; consists of phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive |
| cornea | transparent bulge on the front of the eye |
| aqueous humor | clear liquid in the anterior chamber |
| pupil | an opening in the opaque iris |
| iris | the color pigment on the lens |
| lens | a bean shaped crystalline that controls the amount of light entering the eye |
| retina | thin sheet that lines the rear wall of the eyeball |
| accommodation | the process by which the ciliary muscles change the thickness of the lens of the eye to permit variable focusing on near and distant objects |
| photoreceptors | receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light |
| rods | photoreceptors concentrated in the periphery of the retina that are most active in dim illumination, and responsive to movement |
| cones | photoreceptors concentrated in the center of the retina that are responsible for visual experience under normal viewing conditions for all experiences of color |
| dark adaptation | the gradual improvement of the eyes’ sensitivity after a shift in illumination from light to near darkness |
| fovea | area of the retina that contains densely packed cones and forms the point of sharpest vision |
| bipolar cells | nerve cells in the visual system that combine impulses from many receptors and transmit the results to ganglion cells |
| ganglion cells | cells in the visual system that integrate impulses from many bipolar cells in a single firing rate |
| horizontal cells | the cells that integrate information across the retina; rather than sending signals toward the brain, horizontal cells connect receptors to each other |
| amacrine cells | cells that integrate information across the retina; rather than sending signal toward the brain; link bipolar cells to there bipolar cells and ganglion cells to other ganglion cells |
| blind spot | the place at the back of the eye where a bundle of nerves exits the eye, also known as the optic disc, contains no cells at all |
| optic nerve | the axons of the ganglion cells that carry information from the eye toward the brain |
| receptive field | the area of the visual field to which a neuron in the visual system responds |
| hue | the dimension of color space that captures the qualitative experience of the color of light |
| saturation | the dimension of color space that captures the purity and vividness of color sensations |
| brightness | the dimension of color space that captures the intensity of light |
| complementary colors | colors opposite each other on the color circle; when all combined they create white light |
| trichromatic theory | the theory that there are three types of color receptors that produce the primary color sensations red, green, and blue |
| opponent-process theory | the theory that all color experiences arise from three systems, each of which includes two “opponent” elements (red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white) |
| endorphins | chemical released in the brain that controls your experience of pain; comparative to the drug called morphine |
| Law of proximity | people group together the nearest (most proximal) elements |
| law of similarity | people group together the most similar of elements |
| law of good continuation | people experience lines as continuous even when they are interrupted |
| law of closure | people tend to fill in small gaps to experience objects as wholes |
| law of common fate | people tend to group together objects that appear to be moving in the same direction |
| Interposition (occlusion), relative size, size/distance relation, and linear perspective are all examples of what type of cues? ANSWER | Pictorial cues |
| Olfactory Bulb | The center where odor-sensitive receptors sent their signals, located just below the frontal lobes of the cortex. |
| Pheromones | Chemical signals released by organisms to communicate with other members of the species that often serve as long-distance sexual attractors. |
| Cutaneous Senses | The skin senses that register sensations or pressure, warmth, and cold. |
| Vestibular Sense | The sense that tells how one’s own body is oriented in the world with respect to gravity. |
| Kinesthetic Sense | The sense concerned with bodily positions and movement of the body parts relative to one another. |
| Gate-Control Theory | A theory about pain modulation that proposes that certain cells in the spinal cord act as gates to interrupt and block some pain signals while sending others to the brain. |
| Stimulus-driven capture | A determinant of why people select some parts of sensory input for further processing; occurs when features of stimuli – objects in the environment – automatically capture attention, independent of the local goals of a perceiver . |
| Dichotic listening | An experimental technique in which a different auditory stimulus is simultaneously presented to each ear. |
| Gestalt Psychology | A school of psychology that maintains that psychological phenomena can be understood only when viewed as organized, structured wholes, not when broken down into primitive perceptual elements. |
| Phi Phenomenon | The simplest form of apparent motion, the movement illusion in which one or more stationary lights going on and off in succession and perceived as a single moving light. |
| Retinal Disparity | The displacement between the horizontal positions of corresponding images in the two eyes. |
| Convergence | The degree to which the eyes turn inward fixate on an object. |
| Relative Motion Parallax | A source of information about depth in which the relative distances of objects from a viewer determine the amount of direction of their relative motion in the retinal image. |
| Perceptual Constancy | The ability to retain an unchanging percept of an object despite variations in the retinal image. |
| Size Constancy | The ability to perceive the true size of an object despite variations in the size of its retinal image. |
| Shape Constancy | The ability to perceive the true shape of an object despite variations in the size of the retinal image. |
| Lightness constancy | The tendency to percieve the whiteness, grayness, or blackness of objects as constant across changing levels of illuninations. |
| Bottom-up Processing | Perceptual analyses based on the sensory data available in the environment; results of analysis are passed upward toward more abstract representations. |
| Top-down processing | Perceptual processes in which information from an individual’s past experience, knowledge, expectations, motivations, and background influence the way a perceived object is interpreted and classified. |
| Set | is a temporary readiness to perceive or react to a stimulus in a particular way. |
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lmnhodgins
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