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Semester 1
CH. 1-8
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| empiricism | the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation. (p. 3) |
| structuralism | an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind. (p. 4) |
| functionalism | a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish. (p. 5) |
| experimental psychology | the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method. (p. 6) |
| behaviorism | the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (pp. 6, 218) |
| humanistic psychology | historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth. (p. 6) |
| cognitive neuroscience | the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (pp. 7, 89) |
| psychology | the science of behavior and mental processes. (p. 7) |
| nature-nurture issue | the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (p. 8) |
| natural selection | the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (pp. 8, 103) |
| levels of analysis | the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. (p. 10) |
| biopsychosocial approach | an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. (p. 10) |
| biological psychology | a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. (also: behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (pp. 10, 52) |
| evolutionary psychology | the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection. (pp. 10, 103) |
| psychodynamic psychology | a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. (p. 10) |
| behavioral psychology | the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning. (p. 10) |
| cognitive psychology | the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (p. 10) |
| social-cultural psychology | the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. (p. 10) |
| psychometrics | the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. (p. 12) |
| basic research | pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base. (p. 13) |
| developmental psychology | a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (pp. 13, 411) |
| educational psychology | the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. (p. 13) |
| personality psychology | the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. (p. 13) |
| personality psychology | the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. (p. 13) |
| social psychology | the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (pp. 13, 643) |
| applied research | scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. (p. 13) |
| industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology | the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. (pp. 13, B-2) |
| human factors psychology | a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (pp. 13, B-2) |
| counseling psychology | a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. (p. 13) |
| clinical psychology | a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. (p. 13) |
| psychiatry | a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. (p. 13) |
| SQ3R | a study method incorporating five steps Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review. (p. 14) |
| hindsight bias | the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) (p. 20) |
| critical thinking | thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. (p. 24) |
| theory | an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. (p. 25) |
| hypothesis | a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. (p. 25) |
| operational definition | a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (p. 26) |
| replication | repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. (p. 26) |
| case study | an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (p. 26) |
| survey | a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (p. 27) |
| population | all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note - Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.) (p. 28) |
| random sample | a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (p. 28) |
| naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. (p. 28) |
| correlation | a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. (p. 29) |
| correlation coefficient | a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1 to +1). (p. 29) |
| scatterplot | a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship bet the 2 vars. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation. (p. 29) |
| illusory correlation | the perception of a relationship where none exists. (p. 32) |
| experiment | a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (ind vars) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dep. var.). By random assignment of parts, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. (p. 34) |
| random assignment | assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups. (p. 34) |
| double-blind procedure | an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. (p. 35) |
| placebo | [pluh-SEE-bo; Latin for “I shall please”] effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. (p. 35) |
| experimental group | in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (p. 35) |
| control group | in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (p. 35) |
| independent variable | the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (p. 35) |
| confounding variable | a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. (p. 35) |
| dependent variable | the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. (p. 35) |
| mode | the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. (p. 37) |
| mean | the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. (p. 38) |
| median | the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. (p. 38) |
| range | the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (p. 39) |
| standard deviation | a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (p. 39) |
| normal curve | (normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (pp. 40, 536) |
| statistical significance | a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. (p. 41) |
| culture | the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (pp. 43, 661) |
| informed consent | an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. (p. 45) |
| debriefing | the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (p. 45) |
| biological psychology | a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (pp. 10, |
| neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (p. 53) |
| sensory neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. (p. 53) |
| motor neurons | neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. (p. 53) |
| interneurons | neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. (p. 53) |
| dendrite | the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (p. 53) |
| axon | the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (p. 53) |
| myelin | sheath a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. (p. 53) |
| action potential | a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. (p. 53) |
| threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (p. 54) |
| synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (p. 55) |
| neurotransmitters | chem. messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. |
| reuptake | a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron. (p. 55) |
| endorphins | “morphine within”—natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (p. 57) |
| nervous system | the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. (p. 59) |
| central nervous system (CNS) | the brain and spinal cord. (p. 59) |
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (p. 59) |
| nerves | bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. (p. 59) |
| somatic nervous system | the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. (p. 59) |
| somatic nervous system | the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. (p. 59) |
| autonomic | nervous system the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (p. 59) |
| sympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (p. 59) |
| parasympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (p. 60) |
| reflex | a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. (p. 61) |
| endocrine | system the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (p. 62) |
| hormones | chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. (p. 62) |
| adrenal | glands a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. (p. 63) |
| pituitary gland | the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. (p. 63) |
| lesion | tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue. (p. 67) |
| electroencephalogram (EEG) | an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (p. 67) |
| CT (computed tomography) scan | a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan. (p. 68) |
| PET (positron emission tomography) scan | a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. (p. 68) |
| MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. (p. 68) |
| fMRI (functional MRI) | a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function. (p. 68) |
| brainstem | the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. (p. 69) |
| medulla | the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. (p. 69) |
| reticular formation | a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. (p. 70) |
| thalamus | the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (p. 70) |
| cerebellum | the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. (p. 70) |
| limbic system | doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. (p. 71) |
| amygdala | two lima bean–sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. (p. 71) |
| hypothalamus | a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. (p. 72) |
| cerebral | cortex the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center. (p. 74) |
| glial cells (glia) | cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. (p. 74) |
| frontal lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (p. 74) |
| parietal | lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (p. 74) |
| occipital | lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. (p. 74) |
| temporal lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. (p. 74) |
| motor cortex | an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. (p. 75) |
| sensory cortex | area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (p. 77) |
| association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. (p. 78) |
| aphasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding). (p. 80) |
| Broca’s area | controls language expression—an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. (p. 80) |
| Wernicke’s area | controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. (p. 80) |
| plasticity | the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. (p. 82) |
| neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons. (p. 83) |
| corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (p. 84) |
| split brain | a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. (p. 84) |
| consciousness | our awareness of ourselves and our environment. (pp. 89, 176) |
| cognitive neuroscience | the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (pp. 7, 89) |
| dual processing | the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. (p. 90) |
| behavior genetics | the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. (p. 95) |
| environment | every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. (p. 95) |
| chromosomes | threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. (p. 95) |
| DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) | a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. (p. 95) |
| genes | the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein. (p. 95) |
| genome | the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes. (p. 96) |
| identical twins | twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. (p. 96) |
| fraternal twins | twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. (p. 97) |
| heritability | the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. (p. 100) |
| interaction | the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). (p. 101) |
| molecular genetics | the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. (p. 102) |
| evolutionary psychology | the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection. (pp. 10, 103) |
| natural selection | the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (pp. 8, 103) |
| mutation | a random error in gene replication that leads to a change. (p. 104) |
| sensation | the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. (p. 116) |
| perception | the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. (p. 116) |
| bottom-up processing | analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. (p. 116) |
| top-down processing | information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. (p. 116) |
| selective attention | the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. (p. 117) |
| inattentional blindness | failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. (p. 118) |
| change blindness | failing to notice changes in the environment. (p. 119) |
| psychophysics | the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. (p. 120) |
| absolute threshold | the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. (p. 120) |
| signal detection theory | predicts how and when we detect presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). There is no single absolute threshold; detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. (p. 121) |
| subliminal | below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness. (p. 121) |
| priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response. (pp. 121, 275) |
| difference threshold | the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd). (p. 122) |
| Weber’s law | the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount). (p. 123) |
| sensory adaptation | diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. (p. 123) |
| transduction | conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. (p. 124) |
| wavelength | the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. (p. 125) |
| hue | the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. (p. 125) |
| intensity | the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude. (p. 125) |
| pupil | the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. (p. 126) |
| iris | a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening. (p. 126) |
| lens | the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. (p. 126) |
| retina | the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. (p. 126) |
| accommodation | the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.(p. 126) |
| rods | retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond. (p. 126) |
| cones | retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. (p. 126) |
| optic nerve | the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. (p. 126) |
| blind spot | the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there. (p. 127) |
| fovea | the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster. (p. 127) |
| feature detectors | nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. (p. 129) |
| parallel processing | the processing of many aspects of a prob simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of info processing for many functions, incl vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. (pp. 130, 258) |
| Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory | the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. (p. 132) |
| opponent-process theory | the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. (p. 133) |
| audition | the sense or act of hearing. (p. 134) |
| frequency | the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second). (p. 134) |
| pitch | a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. (p. 134) |
| middle ear | the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window. (p. 135) |
| cochlea | a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. (p. 135) |
| inner ear | the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. (p. 135) |
| place theory | in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. (p. 137) |
| frequency theory | in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (p. 137) |
| conduction hearing loss | hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. (p. 138) |
| sensorineural hearing loss | hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness. (p. 138) |
| cochlear implant | a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea. (p. 138) |
| kinesthesis | the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. (p. 142) |
| vestibular sense | the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. (p. 142) |
| gate-control theory | the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers |
| sensory interaction | the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. (p. 147) |
| gestalt | an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. (p. 151) |
| figure-ground | the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). (p. 151) |
| grouping | the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. (p. 152) |
| depth perception | the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. (p. 153) |
| visual cliff | a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. (p. 153) |
| binocular cues | depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes. (p. 153) |
| retinal disparity | a binocular cue for perceiving depth By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. (p. 153) |
| monocular cues | depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone. (p. 154) |
| phi phenomenon | an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession. (p. 156) |
| perceptual constancy | perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change. (p. 156) |
| color constancy | perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. (p. 158) |
| perceptual adaptation | in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. (p. 160) |
| perceptual set | a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. (p. 161) |
| extrasensory perception (ESP) | the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. (p. 166) |
| parapsychology | the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis. (p. 166) |
| consciousness | our awareness of ourselves and our environment. (pp. 89, 176) |
| circadian rhythm | the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle. (p. 177) |
| REM sleep | rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. (p. 178) |
| alpha waves | the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. (p. 178) |
| sleep | periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.) (p. 178) |
| hallucinations | false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus. (p. 179) |
| delta waves | the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. (p. 180) |
| NREM sleep | non–rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep. (p. 180) |
| insomnia | recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. (p. 185) |
| narcolepsy | a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. (p. 186) |
| sleep apnea | a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. (p. 187) |
| night terrors | a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered. (p. 187) |
| dream | a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. (p. 188) |
| manifest content | according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content). (p. 188) |
| latent content | according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). (p. 189) |
| REM rebound | the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep). (p. 191) |
| hypnosis | a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. (p. 192) |
| posthypnotic suggestion | a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors. (p. 194) |
| withdrawal | the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug. (p. 197) |
| tolerance | the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect. (p. 197) |
| physical dependence | a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued. (p. 197) |
| psychological dependence | a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions. (p. 197) |
| dissociation | a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. (p. 195) |
| psychoactive drug | a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods. (p. 197) |
| addiction | compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences. (p. 197) |
| depressants | drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. (p. 199) |
| barbiturates | drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. (p. 200) |
| opiates | opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. (p. 201) |
| stimulants | drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. (p. 201) |
| amphetamines | drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. (p. 201) |
| methamphetamine | a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels. (p. 201) |
| Ecstasy (MDMA) | a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. (p. 205) |
| hallucinogens | psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. (p. 205) |
| LSD | a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide). (p. 205) |
| near-death experience | an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations. (p. 206) |
| THC | the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. (p. 206) |
| learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. (p. 215) |
| habituation | an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. (p. 216) |
| associative learning | learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). (p. 216) |
| classical conditioning | a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. (p. 218) |
| behaviorism | the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (pp. 6, 218) |
| unconditioned response (UR) | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. (p. 219) |
| conditioned response (CR) | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). (p. 219) |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. (p. 219) |
| acquisition | in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (p. 220) |
| higher-order conditioning | a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. (Also called second-order conditioning.) (p. 220) |
| extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (p. 221) |
| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. (p. 221) |
| generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (p. 222) |
| discrimination | (1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (2) unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. (pp. 222, 664) |
| learned helplessness | the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. (p. 223) |
| respondent behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. (p. 228) |
| operant conditioning | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. (p. 228) |
| operant behavior | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. (p. 228) |
| law of effect | Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. (p. 229) |
| operant chamber | in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. (p. 229) |
| shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. (p. 229) |
| discriminative stimulus | in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement). (p. 230) |
| reinforcer | in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. (p. 230) |
| positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. (p. 231) |
| negative reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note |
| primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. (p. 231) |
| conditioned reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. (p. 231) |
| continuous reinforcement | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. (p. 232) |
| partial (intermittent) reinforcement | reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. (p. 232) |
| fixed-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (p. 232) |
| variable-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. (p. 233) |
| fixed-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (p. 233) |
| variable-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. (p. 233) |
| punishment | an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. (p. 234) |
| cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. (p. 236) |
| latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. (p. 236) |
| insight | a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. (pp. 236, 300) |
| intrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. (p. 237) |
| extrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. (p. 237) |
| biofeedback | a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. (pp. 240, C-8) |
| observational learning | learning by observing others. Also called social learning. (p. 242) |
| modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. (p. 242) |
| mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy. (p. 243) |
| prosocial behavior | positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. (p. 246) |
| memory | the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. (p. 255) |
| encoding | the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. (p. 257) |
| storage | the retention of encoded information over time. (p. 257) |
| retrieval | the process of getting information out of memory storage. (p. 257) |
| sensory memory | the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. (p. 257) |
| short-term memory | activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. (p. 257) |
| long-term memory | the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. (p. 257) |
| working memory | a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. (p. 258) |
| parallel processing | the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.(pp. 130, 258) |
| automatic processing | unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. (p. 258) |
| effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. (p. 259) |
| rehearsal | the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. (p. 259) |
| spacing effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (p. 260) |
| serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. (p. 260) |
| visual encoding | the encoding of picture images. (p. 261) |
| acoustic encoding | the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words. (p. 261) |
| semantic encoding | the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words. (p. 261) |
| imagery | mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. (p. 263) |
| mnemonics | memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. (p. 263) |
| chunking | organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. (p. 264) |
| iconic memory | a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. (p. 266) |
| echoic memory | a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. (p. 266) |
| long-term potentiation (LTP) | an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. (p. 269) |
| flashbulb memory | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (p. 270) |
| amnesia | the loss of memory. (p. 271) |
| implicit memory | retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative or procedural memory.) (p. 272) |
| explicit memory | memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.) (p. 272) |
| hippocampus | a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. (p. 272) |
| recall | a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. (p. 274) |
| recognition | a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. (p. 274) |
| relearning | a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. (p. 274) |
| priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response. (pp. 121, 275) |
| déjà vu | that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. (p. 276) |
| mood-congruent memory | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood. (p. 278) |
| proactive interference | the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. (p. 282) |
| repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. (pp. 284, 483) |
| misinformation effect | incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event. (p. 286) |
| source amnesia | attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (p. 287) |
| cognition | all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (pp. 298, 417) |
| concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. (p. 298) |
| prototype | a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). (p. 299) |
| algorithm | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics. (p. 300) |
| heuristic | a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. (p. 300) |
| insight | a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. (pp. 236, 300) |
| creativity | the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. (p. 301) |
| confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. (p. 303) |
| fixation | (1) the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set. (2) according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved. (pp. 303, 483) |
| mental set | a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. (p. 303) |
| functional fixedness | the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving. (p. 303) |
| representativeness heuristic | judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. (p. 304) |
| availability heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. (p. 305) |
| overconfidence | the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. (p. 306) |
| belief perseverance | clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. (p. 307) |
| intuition | an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. (p. 308) |
| framing | the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. (p. 311) |
| language | our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning. (p. 313) |
| phoneme | in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. (p. 313) |
| morpheme | in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix). (p. 314) |
| grammar | in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. (p. 314) |
| semantics | the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning. (p. 314) |
| syntax | the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. (p. 314) |
| babbling stage | beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. (p. 315) |
| one-word stage | the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. (p. 316) |
| two-word stage | beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements. (p. 316) |
| telegraphic speech | early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs. (p. 316) |
| linguistic determinism | Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think. (p. 319) |
| motivation | a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. (p. 328) |
| instinct | a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. (p. 328) |
| drive-reduction theory | the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. (p. 329) |
| homeostasis | a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. (p. 329) |
| incentive | a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. (p. 329) |
| hierarchy of needs | Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. (p. 330) |
| glucose | the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. (p. 333) |
| set point | the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. (p. 335) |
| basal metabolic rate | the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. (p. 335) |
| anorexia nervosa | an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve. (p. 337) |
| bulimia nervosa | an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise. (p. 337) |
| binge-eating disorder | significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa. (p. 337) |
| sexual response cycle | the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. (p. 349) |
| refractory period | a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. (p. 349) |
| estrogens | sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. (p. 350) |
| testosterone | the most important of the male sex hormones. Both m and f have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. (pp. 350, 438) |
| sexual orientation | an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation). (p. 354) |
| emotion | a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience. (p. 366) |
| James-Lange theory | the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. (p. 367) |
| Cannon-Bard theory | the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion. (p. 367) |
| two-factor theory | the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal. (p. 367) |
| polygraph | a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes). (p. 372) |
| facial feedback | the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness. (p. 383) |
| catharsis | emotional release. The catharsis hypothesis maintains that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges. (p. 388) |
| feel-good, do-good phenomenon | people’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood. (p. 390) |
| well-being | self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality of life. (p. 390) |
| adaptation-level phenomenon | our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. (p. 394) |
| relative deprivation | the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves. (p. 394) |
| behavioral medicine | an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease. (p. 397) |
| health psychology | a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine. (p. 397) |
| stress | the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging. (p. 397) |
| general adaptation syndrome (GAS) | Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion. (p. 399) |
| coronary heart disease | the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries. (p. 401) |
| Type A | Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. (p. 402) |
| Type B | Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people. (p. 402) |
| psychophysiological illness | literally, “mind-body” illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches. (p. 403) |
| psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) | the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health. (p. 403) |
| lymphocytes | the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, |
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