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Psy 359
Question | Answer |
---|---|
Components of Groups? | 1) Contain at least two people 2) Must be in interacting 3) Interdependence must be in play |
Why do we join groups? | 1) Pursue common goals & fulfill needs. 2) Important source of information 3) Helps define identity -Distinct from other groups. 4) Establishment of social norms -Groups vs. Societal norms can come in conflict. |
Social Roles | Shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave in that group -Can lose individual identity and personality |
The Stanford Prison Experiment | Randomly assigned male characters volunteers to play roles as guards or prisoners. |
Stanford Prison Experiment | Students assumed their roles Ended after six days "Bad barrels, not apples."-Zimbardo |
Group Cohesiveness | Qualities that define & promote liking |
Potential Benefits & drawbacks of GC | Helps performance when task requires close cooperation Can interfere with optimal performance |
Group diversity: Benefits | Homogeneous groups more cohesive |
Group Diversity: Drawbacks | Friction is worth it, often diminished with time |
Performance in groups | better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when in front of others & their individual performance can be evaluated **Simple tasks performance is improved when watched** |
Mere Presence Effects | Arousal experienced physically in response to stimuli |
Cockroaches experiment | Cockroaches took less time when being watched on the simpler Took more time on harder tunnels |
Yerkes-Dodson curves (optimum arousal in easy vs. hard tasks) | Mild arousal usually does better |
caveat | extreme arousal can cause breakdown or burnout! |
Why presence of others boost arousal in humans | 1) other people cause us to become particularly alert & vigilant 2) Other people make us apprehensive about how we're being evaluated 3) other people distract us from task at hand |
social loafing | people who do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks in presence of others & don't get evaluated |
deindividuation | loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people cannot be differentiated, leading to an increase in deviant and/or impulsive acts |
process loss | any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving |
reducing process loss | increasing sharing of unique info |
transactive memory | combined memory of two people that is more efficient than the memory of either individual |
groupthink | a kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness & solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner |
avoiding groupthink | 1) Remain Impartial 2) Seek Outside Opinions 3) Create Subgroups 4) Seek anonymous |
Group Polarization | The tendency for groups to make the decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members |
Why does group polarization occur? | Joining a group is likely to lead an individual's attitudes to become more extreme through process of group polarization. |
Great Person Theory | the idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation. |
Evidence for or against the great person theory | personality & leadership abilities weakly related |
transactional leadership | short term goals reward people when met |
transformational leadership | long term goals common and inspired |
double bind-warm and communal | perceived as having low leadership potential |
double bind-agultic and forceful | often perceived negatively for not acting like a lady should |
glass cliff | women are thought to be better at managing crises (especially interpersonal ones) |
cultural differences | autonomous leaderships valued more in Eastern European than Latin America. |
Cultural similarities | charisma team-orientation |
why conflict occurs | often people have incompatible goals |
social dileema | a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual, if chosen by most people, will have harmful effects on everyone |
tragedy of the commons | Hardin (1968), science When shared, unregulated resources most rational individually to take as much as possible, pollute, etc. Depletes or destroys the resource, destroying common good Regulation and/or private ownership can help |
Prisoners' dileema | Two people must choose one of two options without knowing what the other person will choose |
Negotiations | Form of communications between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers & counter offers are made & a solution occurs only when both parties agree. |
integrative solution ("win-win solution") | Solution to conflict whereby parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests |
mediator's role | To be a neutral party; Impacting construals |
Social proof | Look to others to determine what's correct |
When is social proof especially powerful? | When proof in form of many others doing it |
similar | likely to provide info on what to do when other's situation are similar |
uncertainty | looks at others behaviors & consider them correct when we are uncertain |
how to save self in emergencies (devictimizing yourself) | 1) Isolate one individual from crowd 2) Stare, speak and point directly to that person and no one else 3) Ask for precise type of help |
Battling exploiters | recognize when data might be false & aggressively counterattack |
to whom are we attracted? | people in proximity |
propinquity effect | finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends |
Festinger apartment experiment | experiment to show whether or not residents would befriend the people next to them, or down the hall and below/above them. |
functional distance | refers to aspects of architectural design that make it more likely that some people will come into contact with each other |
mere presence exposure | the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more we tend to like it |
similarity | birds of a feather, flock together Supported by research |
complementary | opposites attract |
expectations on similarity | complimentary on dominance and submissiveness hook ups |
gay and lesbian relationships rely on | similarity |
You put yourself in situations that | expose you to others with similar interests |
When seeking friends based on appearance, we...(2 answers) | 1) Seek others who look like us 2) Seek others with similar degree of physical attractiveness |
Reciprocal liking is... | We like people who like us |
Regards to initial attraction, reciprocal liking can over come...(2 answers) | Dissimilarity Attentional biases to attractive faces |
Physical attractiveness... | Plays an important role in liking |
Gender Differences? (Attitudes,2 answers) | Men are more likely to report attraction is important Women are not. |
Gender differences? (behaviors, 1 answer) | Greater similarity |
Male and female attractiveness | females must be skinny and small with a big smile and eyes males must be masculine and broad with the "v-line" |
familiarity and attractiveness | people prefer faces that most resemble their own |
the halo effect | bias in which someone with one positive characteristic also assumed to possess other (even unrelated) positive characteristics |
self-fulfilling prophecy | the beautiful receive a great deal of social attention helps them develop good social skills |
Snyder phone study | men were attracted to woman on phone with attractive voice |
does attractiveness actually affect women more than men? | No. Both are essentially the same. |
is attractiveness ever detrimental? When? | Yes. Attractiveness people never know genuine praise and get labeled as not having good skill sets or smart. |
Evolutionary Psychology | the attempt to help explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection |
mate preferences (male vs. female) | men are attracted to women's appearance women are attracted to men's resources |
Eagly's alternative views | women are usually less powerful and less wealthy |
what are technology's effects on attractions & social connections? (3 answers) | 1)Propinquity: Not many degrees of separation 2) Similarity: People seek others with similar popularity 3) Familiarity: Liking decreased after meeting |
Benefits of online dating (3 answers) | 1) lots of potential partners 2) easy communication 3) analysis of compatibility to make matches |
drawbacks of online dating (2 answers) | 1) 81% provide inaccurate information 2) Deceptive, misleading photos |
two different types of love? | Companionate love: Care for them. No arousal present. Friends in a sense. Passionate love: longing, with physiological arousal for person. Crushes and dating. |
Cross-Culturally love is different how? (3 answers) | 1) Think about 2) Define 3) Experience |
attachment styles: secure | trust and worthy |
attachment styles: anxious/ ambivalent | common that intimacy will not be reciprocated |
attachment styles: avoidant | suppression of attachment needs, intimacy is futile |
attachment theory | attachment style learned in infancy becomes schema for all relationships |
malleability of styles: secure | develop mature, lasting relationships |
malleability of styles: avoidant | less trust and more difficult to form intimate relationships with others |
malleability of styles: anxious/ ambivalent | want closeness but afraid of rejection |
Social exchange theory | people's feelings about a relationship depend on perceptions of rewards and costs, the kind of relationship they deserve and their chances for having a better relationship with someone else |
investment model of commitment | people's commitment to a relationships depends on not only on their satisfaction but investment as well |
investment | what would be lost by leaving it |
investment study model of commitment: What equals satisfaction with relationships (3 answers) | 1) rewards 2) costs 3) comparison level |
equity theory | equitable relationships are the happiest and most stable rewards and costs are roughly the same |
exchange vs communal relationships aspect | exchange: relationships governed by the need for equity communal: relationships in which primary concern is being responsive to other person's needs |
Gottman's four horsemen | Contempt: mockery criticism: attacking other person's character defending: defending oneself through excuses stonewalling: silent treatment |
Rusbult's 4 categories of behavior: destructive | Actively: Actively harming the relationship Passive: passively allowing relationship to deteriorate |
Rusbult's 4 categories of behavior: constructive | actively: actively trying to improve the relationships passively: passively remaining loyal to the relationship |
Duck's four stages of breaking up | intrapersonal: think about dissatisfaction dyadic: discuss breakup with partner social: breakup announced to others intrapersonal: recover by think about why and how it happened |
Qualities that attracted most in a relationship at first... | Become the ones that are most hated during break ups |
Levels of responsibility: Breakers | High Level; Least upsetting, painful and stressful |
Levels of responsibility: Breakees | Low level: Miserable, lonely, depressed, angry |
Levels of responsibility: mutuals | Same level: not as upset as breakees, more stressed than breakers |
How does liking influence persuasion? | People are more likely to say yes to those they like and trust |
Five factors in liking and persuasion: physical attractiveness | Perceived as honest and kind |
Five factors in liking and persuasion: similarity | pmatching one in anything will increase liking |
Five factors in liking and persuasion: compliments | Even if we know are untrue, we are still susceptible |
Five factors in liking and persuasion: contact and cooperation | familiarity increases liking |
Five factors in liking and persuasion: associative processes | dislikes being bearer of bad news |
Does contact always increase liking? | no |
Defending against liking | focus on effects, not causes, of liking |
prosocial behavior | any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person |
altrusim | the desire to help another person even if involves a cost to the helper and no benefit to oneself |
the reciprocity norm | the expectation that helping others with increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future |
kin selection | the idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection |
group selection | people who have traits that make them more likely to survive are more likely to reproduce and pass on those traits OR selfless behavior to benefit the group |
social exchange theory:rewards of helping: norm of reciprocity | increase likelihood of future help |
social exchange theory: rewards of helping: investment in future | someone will help us when we need it |
social exchange theory: rewards of helping: gain rewards | social approval self worth |
social exchange theory: costs of helping | physical danger pain embarrassment time |
empathy | attempting to experience event or emotions the way that person experiences them |
empathy-altruism hypothesis | when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain |
social exchange theory argues that... | true altruism does not exist -People help when the benefits outweigh the cost |
altruistic personality | the qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations |
other factors vs altruistic personality | 1)situational pressures 2)gender 3)culture 4)current mood |
gender differences in prosocial behavior | males are more likely to perform short term heroic acts females are more likely to perform long term easier tasks |
in-group | the group with which an individual identifies as a member |
out-group | any group with which an individual does not identity |
simpatia | friendly, polite, good-natured, pleasant, helpful toward others |
religious people... | more likely to help others who share their beliefs, aren't much different than nonreligious people when it comes to help strangers |
why neutral people are less likely to help than people who are happy or angry | happy people want others to be happy angry people feel guilty and/or do good to make themselves feel better |
bystander effect | the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help the victim |
helper effect (fisher, 2011) | suggest if one person actively helps, everyone else is more likely to help |
the seizure study | note the power of descriptive norm, prestige and in-group statues |
bystander intervention decision tree | 1)notice event 2)interpret as emergency 3)assume responsibility 4)know how to assist 5) actually implant decision |
Missing a step in BIDT: | No intervention |
how to increase likelihood that bystanders will intervene | 1)general awareness of the barriers to helping in an emergency 2) reminding selves that it is important to overcome inhibitions and do the right thing |
mandatory volunteerism | need to encourage volunteering while preserving the sense that the behavior was freely chosen |
over-justification effect | strong external reasons can undermine intrinsic interest |
how rule of reciprocity works | we should try to repay in kind what another person has given to us obligates future repayment of favors, gifts, invites, etc |
homo reciprocus | universal in every society |
uninvited debts | the rule was created so a person could initiate a reciprocal relationship without fear of loss so the uninvited favor must have the ability to create an obligation |
long term reciprocity | favor that doesn't have to be payed back family or long term friends |
short term reciprocity | feel the need to pay them back |
door in the face technique | starting with bigger request then asking a smaller request when denied bigger request victim usually feels guilt |
prejudice | a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group based solely on their membership in that group |
bases for prejudice | race. religion, gender, sexual orientation, culture, etc |
ABC components of prejudice | A: Affective-Emotions B: Behavioral- discrimination C: Cognitive- stereotypes |
When stereotyping is adaptive | when accurately identifies the good of a group |
when stereotyping is maladaptive | blinds us to individual differences |
list history theory of social perception/stereotyping (steve neuberg) | People posses stereotyping about others along these dimensions: Age, Sex, Home Ecology (race) |
Positive Stereotyping | diminishes individuality |
gender stereotyping | traditional stereotypes: women are more socially sensitive, friendlier and more concerned with the welfare of others men: are more dominant, controlling and independent |
hostile vs. benevolent sexism | hostile: women are inferior to men benevolent: positive views of women |
why is prejudice so hard to combat through logical arguments? | they're emotional based |
discrimination | harmful action toward member of groups because they're in the group |
when discrimination more likely to occur | stressed out, angry, assimilated, not in control of conscious attentions |
traditional measures | simply ask people in more or less direct about their attitudes toward certain groups |
bogus pipeline | fake polygraph used to get participants to truthfully respond to emotionally questions about prejudices |
IAT | (implicit associate test); measures speed of positive and negative reactions of target groups |
self-fulfilling prophecies | unconsciously behaving a certain way until they were trained to react differently |
stereotype threat and how to reduce it | self affirmation and mindsets. Telling yourself you're a good person and that you can get better. |
normative conformity | strong tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the groups' expectation and gain acceptance |
social identity | part of our identity that stems from our membership in groups |
ethnocentrism | the belief that your own culture, nation or religion is superior is to all others |
main underlying motive for in group bias is... | self-esteem |
minimal groups paradigm | strangers are formed into groups using the most trivial criteria (over-achievers, under-achievers) |
Crandall and Eshleman's 2003 model Justifying Entitlement and Superiority | struggle between the urge to express prejudice and the need to maintain positive self-concept |
scapegoating | placing the blame on someone else |
realistic conflict theory | limited resources leads to conflict among groups which leads to prejudice and discrimination |
six conditions for contact to reduce prejudice | mutual interdependence common goal equal status friendly and formal setting knowing multiple out group members (people not in your group) Social norms of equality |
interdependence | the need to depend on each other to accomplish a goal that is important to each group |
Jigsaw Classrom | study where learning groups of mixed races learned to rely on each other to get information to pass an exam |