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BioPsych Final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| How do SSRI’S work? | Inhibits serotonin reuptake |
| What is neuroscience? | The study of the nervous system |
| Biopsychology: | The study between behaviors and the body, particularly the brain |
| How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have? | 23 pairs; 46 chromosomes |
| Behavior: | The actions or reactions of a person or animal in response to external or internal stimuli. The way in which someone acts or conducts themselves. Psychologists have a broad definition that includes cognitive processes - learning, emotions, thinking. |
| Where are genes found? | The chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell |
| Define gene | biological unit that directs cellular processes and transmits inherited characteristics |
| Define allele: | an alternative form of a gene (one member of a pair) that is located at a specific position on a specific chromosome. |
| Phenotype: | Trait or characteristic |
| Genotype: | Description of genetic makeup |
| Chimera: | organism composed of two genetically distinct types of cells. Can be formed by the fusion of two early blastula stage embryos or by the reconstitution of the bone marrow in an irradiated recipient or by somatic segregation |
| Polygenic: | Multiple genes contribute to most phenotypes |
| What is an example of an exception of polygenic traits? | Huntington’s disease |
| What are the four structures of a neuron? | Dendrites, Axon, Nucleus, Axon terminals |
| Action potential: | Brief change in polarization across the cell membrane |
| Dendrites: | bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct them toward the cell body |
| What affects how much information a dendrite can receive? | Surface area |
| What increases the surface area of a dendrite? | Dendritic spines |
| What is located within the cell body? | The nucleus with DNA |
| What is the purpose of the cell body (soma)? | Conducts metabolic processes to support the survival of the neuron (energy, waste removal etc) |
| Axon: | extension of the neuron through which signals are passed – can be very long or very short |
| What is the start of an Axon called? | Axon hillock (the part where action potential is created or terminated) |
| Nodes of Ranvier: | gaps in myelin sheath through which action potentials are transmitted |
| Myelin Sheath: | cells filled with fatty tissue (myelin) that surround the axons of many neurons allowing signals to be rapidly passed down the axon |
| What are the three main types of neurons? | Sensory, Motor, and Interneurons |
| Sensory neurons: | specialized at one end – very sensitive to stimulation (touch, light, sound),information from body (sensory receptors) to brain and spinal cord |
| Afferent: | brings information into a structure (A = admission) |
| Interneurons: | dendrites and axons within same structure |
| Motor neurons: | output from brain and spinal cord to muscles and organs |
| Efferent: | carries information away from a structure (E = exit) |
| When the neuron is inactive (resting) the ions on the outside are mainly _________ and _________, on inside are _____________ and _______________. | sodium (Na+, positive), chloride (Cl-, negative), potassium (K+), negative ions (anions) |
| If there are more negative ions on the inside and more positive ions on the outside of the neuron, then the overall effect is: | Inside of the cell is more negative than the inside of the cell |
| If the neuron is polarized, that means: | There is a difference in electrical charge across the membrane |
| Resting membrane potential= | Difference in charge between inside and outside the neuron – voltage |
| What is the typical resting potential? | -70Mv |
| More Na+ outside cell, inside cell is: | More negative |
| Depolarization: | Once threshold potential reached - Na+ channels open and Na+ rushes into the neuron |
| At peak of depolarization: | +40mV, Na+ channels close, K+ channels open |
| Repolarization: | K+ floods out of neuron so membrane potential becomes more negative |
| Hyperpolarization: | Membrane potential is more negative than resting membrane potential (i.e., -90 mV) |
| Recovery: | Ions drift away or are pumped away by Na+ K+ pump |
| Absolute refractory period: | Na+ channels are open or cannot re-open so neuron cannot fire |
| Relative refractory period: | only a strong stimulus can make the neuron fire because NA+ channels are re-setting and neuron is hyperpolarized |
| What produces myelin sheath? | Glial cells |
| Nodes of Ranvier: | Ion gates at intervals (1 mm) down the length of the axon |
| Saltatory conduction: | The speed at which the action potential travels down a myelinated neuron is faster than unmyelinated neurons because the action potential jumps from node to node |
| Multiple sclerosis: | Deterioration of the myelin sheath |
| How does neural activity of one neuron get passed on to another neuron? | There is a small gap (less than a millionth of an inch) between the terminal branches of the neuronal axon and the dendrites of the next neuron (synaptic cleft) |
| Exocytosis: | An action potential in a neuron causes release of chemicals called NEUROTRANSMITTERS from the axon terminals into the synaptic cleft |
| Neurotransmitters are formed in the cell body or axon terminals and packaged in ___________. | Vesicles |
| NEUROTRANSMITTERS bind to _________ on the dendrites of the next neuron. | Receptors |
| What are receptors? | Proteins that are embedded in the postsynaptic membrane |
| Agonist: | Mimicking neurotransmitters |
| Antagonist: | Blocking receptors |
| Excitatory: | Partial depolarization (resting membrane potential is less negative) |
| Inhibitory: | Partial hyperpolarization (resting membrane potential is more negative) |
| Whether a neuron fires, depends: | On the sum of the inputs it receives from other neurons |
| The nervous system is split into what two parts? | Central (brain and spinal cord) and Peripheral (Everything outside the cns) |
| Autonomic: | works automatically without our awareness (regulates heart beat, digestion, glandular activity, breathing etc) |
| Parasympathetic: | calming (eg, decreases blood pressure and heart rate) |
| Sympathetic: | stimulating (eg, fight or flight response – increase in blood pressure and heart rate) |
| Somatic: | control of skeletal muscles |
| Gyrus: | Ridge |
| Sulcus: | Groove |
| Fissure: | Long, deep sulcus |
| Dorsal | Towards back |
| Ventral | Towards stomach |
| Anterior | Front |
| Posterior | Back |
| Medial | Towards middle |
| Lateral | Away from middle |
| The brain is divided into 3 main parts: | Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain |
| Forebrain: | Cerebral cortex, Thalamus, Hypothalamus |
| Midbrain: | Substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area |
| Hindbrain: | Medulla, pons, cerebellum |
| Longitudinal fissure: | Divides cortex into 2 hemispheres |
| Cortex is only gray matter layer. Composed of: | Dendrites and cell bodies |
| White matter is ________. | Axons |
| Why is the brain wrinkled? | To make room for more neurons |
| The central sulcus divides what two lobes? | Frontal and parietal |
| The lateral sulcus divides what two lobes? | Frontal and temporal |
| Motor cortex is located on the: | Precentral gyrus |
| Where is the precentral gyrus? | Back of frontal lobe |
| Where is the somatosensory cortex? | The parietal lobes |
| The somatosensory cortex: | Area that receives information from touch sensations and from receptors in muscles and joints on opposite side of body |
| Auditory cortex receives information from: | The ears |
| Wernicke’s area involved in: | Understanding language |
| Left temporal lobe essential in: | Understanding spoken language |
| Temporal lobes are located below the __________ fissure. | Lateral |
| Temporal lobes are responsible for: | Complex aspects of vision – movement, face recognition (prosopagnosia), recognition of objects and emotional/motivational behaviors |
| The Thalamus: | Receives and then relays information from sensory systems to cortical regions |
| The hypothalamus: | Involved in regulating the internal environment |
| The hypothalamus is involved with what signals? | Thirst, hunger, body temperature, and sexual behavior |
| Information from the right side of the screen goes to the left hemisphere – | patient can verbalize what was seen |
| Information from the left side of the screen goes to the right hemisphere – | patient cannot verbalize what was seen but can draw or pick out object with left hand |
| Substantia nigra – | integrates movement |
| Ventral tegmental area- | Rewarding effects – start of the “reward pathways” |
| Where is the hindbrain located? | Located at the top of the spinal cord |
| What does the hindbrain include? | Medulla, pons, and cerebellum |
| Medulla regulates: | automatic functions such as heart rate, vomiting, swallowing, and breathing |
| Where is the reticular formation? | The hindbrain |
| The reticular formation: | A network of neurons from spinal cord to midbrain responsible in arousal |
| What is the cerebellum involved in: | coordinating movement and balance, as well as learning and memory |
| A drug is: | a substance that on entering the body changes the body or its functioning |
| How are drugs categorized? | according to their predominant action |
| Stimulant drugs increase: | excitement, alertness, motor activity and elevate mood |
| Cocaine causes: | Euphoria, appetite suppressant, increased alertness, decreases fatigue |
| What is the mechanism of action for cocaine? | Blocks dopamine transporters on presynaptic terminals increasing the amount of dopamine in the synaptic cleft |
| Cocaine reduces: | cortical inhibition of lower brain structures |
| Withdrawal of cocaine: | Anhedonia (lack of pleasure), anxiety, lack of motivation |
| Mechanism of action for amphetamine: | Increases the release of norepinephrine and dopamine also depletion of dopamine |
| Large doses of nicotine: | nausea, vomiting, headaches, convulsions and death |
| Withdrawal of nicotine: | nervousness, anxiety, headaches |
| Greatest number of preventable deaths? | Nicotine |
| Mechanism of action for nicotine: | Stimulation of subtype of acetylcholine (nicotinic) post-synaptic receptors. Also activates dopamine neurons through nicotinic receptors. |
| Mechanism of action for caffeine: | Indirectly increases the release of dopamine and acetylcholine by blocking adenosine receptors |
| Alcohol can cause: | Vitamin b1 deficiency |
| Mechanism of action of alcohol: | Increases effects at GABAA receptor complex. Inhibits release of glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter – also produces inhibition. Increases dopamine release. |
| Mechanisms of action of opiates: | Agonist at endogenous post-synaptic opioid receptors. Indirectly activates dopamine pathways. |
| THC binds with | cannabinoid receptors on the pre-synaptic terminals, which ordinarily respond to endogenous cannabinoids (Anandamide and 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG)) |
| The mesolimbocortical dopamine system | Activated by natural rewards such as food, water, sex. Things that activate this system become more desirable. Addictive drugs also activate this dopamine system. |
| Castration: | Removal of the gonads (testes or ovaries) removes the major source of sex hormones |
| Androgens: | Class of hormones responsible for a number of male characteristics and functions |
| Estrogens: | A class of hormones responsible for a number of female characteristics and functions |
| Progestins: | Second major class of female hormones |
| Sex: | the biological characteristics that divide humans and other animals into the categories of male and female |
| Gender: | behavioral characteristics associated with being male or female |
| Gender role: | set of behaviors society considers appropriate for people of a given biological sex |
| Gender identity: | person’s subjective feeling of being male or female |
| Müllerian inhibiting hormone – | Müllerian ducts degenerate |
| Testosterone – | makes the internal organs masculine |
| Dihydrotestosterone causes | the undifferentiated external genitals to become the penis and scrotum |
| Pseodohermaphrodites | Have ambiguous internal and/or external organs, but their gonads (ovaries or testes) are consistent with their chromosomes |
| Androgen insensitivity syndrome – | a genetic absence of androgen receptors which results in insensitivity to androgens |
| Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH): | Enzyme defect - adrenal glands produce large amounts of androgens during fetal development and after birth. Postnatal hormone levels can be normalized by corticosteroids. |
| Aggression is | behavior that is intended to harm |
| Predatory aggression – | animal attacks and kills its prey unemotionally |
| Affective aggression – | characterized by emotional arousal |
| Offensive aggression – | unprovoked attack |
| Defensive aggression – | response to threat, caused by fear |
| Tumors in hypothalamus or septal regions can cause | Aggression |
| In terms of aggression, Amygdala – | seizures increases aggression while damage decreases aggression |
| Higher activity in right amygdala and right hypothalamus in murderers – | lesions of these areas decrease uncontrollable aggression |
| Antisocial disorder is associated with | impulsiveness and decreased size of prefrontal lobes |
| When does onset of schizophrenia happen? | Onset in men often teens and twenties, women often teens and twenties, and forties |
| Schizophrenia brain anomalies: | Most consistent changes are enlarged ventricles and reduced activity in frontal lobes |
| Dopamine hypothesis – | schizophrenia involves excessive dopamine activity in the brain |
| Prolonged use of antipsychotic drugs cause severe side effects: | Motor effects caused by blocking dopamine receptors in the basal ganglia and an increased sensitivity of the dopamine D2 receptors causes tardive dyskinesia (tremors and involuntary movements) |
| New antipsychotic drugs – atypical antipsychotics | 15 – 25% more effective than older antipsychotic drugs |
| Glutamate theory – | reduced glutamate activity plays a role in schizophrenia |
| Major depression – | sadness to the point of hopelessness for weeks, lose ability to enjoy life, relationships, and sex, loss of energy and appetite, slowness of thought, and sleep disturbances |
| Mania – | excess energy and confidence, grandiose schemes, decreased need for sleep, increased sexual drive, often involves abuse of drugs, loss of inhibitions |
| Bipolar disorder – | alternation between depression and mania |
| What is the peak age for depression in women? | 35 – 45 |
| What is the peak age of bipolar disorder in men and women? | early 20s – 30 |
| Depression genes: | Mutation in hTPH2 gene decreases synthesis of serotonin |
| Monoamine hypothesis – | depression involves reduced activity at norepinephrine and serotonin synapses |
| Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors | block degradation of neurotransmitters |
| How do antidepressants and ECT work? | Antidepressants increase levels of norepinephrine and serotonin but improvement of depression does not occur for several weeks |
| Neurogenesis hypothesis | suggests that antidepressants and ECT cause an increase in the formation of new neurons in the hippocampus |
| Depression neural changes: | Decreased neural activity, particularly in the caudate nucleus, and sections of the prefrontal cortex. Increased neural activity is increased in the amygdala and the ventral prefrontal cortex. |
| Abnormal hemispheric dominance | |
| Increased neural activity particularly in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex: | This area could be responsible for switching from depression to mania |
| Bipolar disorder treatment | lithium carbonate |
| What is intelligence? | The ability to reason, to understand, and to profit from experience |
| IQ scores are increasing by | 5 – 25 points per generation so tests are adjusted to maintain an average of 100 |
| Is there a specific location for general intelligence (g)? | PET scans on subjects given reasoning tasks resulted in activation of prefrontal cortex |
| Does brain size influence intelligence? | Absolute brain size does not reflect intelligence but brain size relative to body size may – humans have one of highest ratios of brain size to body size |
| Linguistic skills involve | the left frontal and temporal lobes |
| Math skills involves | the left frontal lobe (precise calculations such as times tables) and both parietal lobes (estimates of calculations) |
| Spatial skills involves | parietal structures in right hemisphere (areas involved in somatosensory and visual functions) |
| Heritability of intelligence is | approximately 50% |
| American Psychiatric Association criteria of intellectual disability based on | IQ < 70 and difficulty dealing with routine needs such as self-care |
| Maternal alcoholism is the leading cause of intellectual disability – | fetal alcohol syndrome |
| Down syndrome: | Most common genetic cause of intellectual disability, Caused by three copies of chromosome 21 (trisomy), IQ typically 40 – 55 |
| All Down syndrome individuals develop | amyloid plaques and Alzheimer’s if live to age 50 |
| Phenylketonuria | Inability to metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid, Excess phenylalanine interferes with myelination, Can cause profound intellectual disability, Newborns tested for levels of phenylalanine, Controlled by diet modification |
| Autism Spectrum Disorder – | includes early infantile autism, childhood autism, pervasive development disorder, and Asperger’s disorder etc. |
| Autism | Includes social impairment, compulsive, ritualistic behavior (rocking, flapping, head banging) as well as intellectual disability |
| Signs of autism: | Mute or impaired language development, often repeat what others say, obsessive interest in facts, prefer to be alone, treat other people as objects (walk over them) |
| Autistic individuals do not empathize with other people, infer what others are thinking (theory of mind), and do not form strong social bonds – | could be due to a malfunction in the activity of mirror neurons |
| Asperger’s syndrome – | very similar to autism but language, cognitive development and self-help skills more normal |
| Autistic savants – | have isolated exceptional abilities but overall functioning is impaired, May be due to lack of inhibition by executive control centers or due to enlargement of one particular brain region |
| Autistic children have brain autoantibodies that affect neurons and myelin – | autopsies of autistic individuals have found increased levels of astroglia and microglia in the brain suggesting increased immune activity |
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