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CogPsych ~12
Chapter 12: Problem Solving
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is a problem? | A problem occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle. |
| What are the two features of a problem? | 1) Difficult 2) Non-obvious solution |
| What are well-defined and ill-defined problems? | 1) Well-defined problems -- Problems with correct answer; certain procedures, when applied correctly, will lead to solution 2) Ill-defined problems -- Problems with no single “correct” answer; path of solution unclear |
| What are the three categories of well-defined problems, according to Greeno (1975)? | 1) Arrangement problems 2) Inducing Structure problems 3) Transformation problems |
| What are the characteristics of arrangement problems? | They require rearranging of its parts to satisfy a criterion (e.g., anagrams) |
| What are the skills needed to solve arrangement problems? | 1) Fluency in generating possibilities 2) Retrieval of solution patterns 3) Knowledge of principles that constrain search |
| What are the characteristics of inducing structure problems? | They require finding a pattern among fixed set of relations (e.g. extrapolating number series, analogy) |
| What are the skills needed to solve inducing structure problems? | - Identifying relations among the components - Fitting relations together in a pattern |
| What are the characteristics of transformation problems? | They require the change of the initial state through a sequence of operations until it matches the goal state |
| How do transformation problems differ from arrangement problems and structure problems? | They provide a goal state to the solver, and they require planning skills. |
| What is the Gestalt approach to problem solving? | It claims that problem solving involves 1) A representation of the problem in mind and 2) The reorganization or restructuring of said representation in order to achieve a solution. |
| What is insight, in the Gestalt approach? | The sudden realisation of a problem's solution. Gestalt psychologists assumed that people solving their problems were experiencing insight because the solutions usually seemed to to come to them all of a sudden. |
| Describe Metcalfe & Wiebe's (1987) experiment distinguishing between insight and noninsight problems. | Subjects given insight/noninsight problems and asked them to rate "warmth" (hot = feeling close to solving) every 15 seconds. |
| What were the results of Metcalfe & Wiebe's (1987) experiment distinguishing between insight and noninsight problems? | For insight problems, warmth ratings began at 2 and remained there until they suddenly changed from 3 to 7 at the end--sudden occurance. For noninsight problems, ratings began at 3 and gradually increased until the problem was solved. |
| What was the obstacle to problem solving in the Gestalt approach? | Fixiation. |
| What is fixation? | People's tendency to focus on specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution. |
| What is functional fixedness? | Restriction of objects to its familiar usage |
| Why do fixations occur? | Because of a mental set. |
| What is a mental set? | Preconceived notions of how to approach a problem determined by past experience. |
| How was the Newell & Simon (1972) approach to problem solving modelled? | - Human problem solving data used to program computer simulating problem solving - Data collected, approximate human behavior - Theories about human problem solving proposed; implications drawn from theories used to enhance human performance |
| Why were computers used to model the Newell & Simon approach? | 1. Covert nature of thought makes it difficult to examine minds directly 2. Computer programs require instructions to be defined explicitly, so 3. no vagueness allowed i.e. unspecified steps 4. Provides measurement of sufficiency |
| What are the characteristics of the Newell & Simon approach? | Problems are perceived in terms of states. Problem solving involves a sequence of choices of steps. The person has to search the problem space to find a solution. |
| What is an initial state? | Conditions at the beginning of a problem. |
| What is a goal state? | The solution to the problem. |
| What is an intermediate state? | Conditions after each step that was made towards solving the problem. |
| What is an operator? | An action that takes the problem from one state to another. |
| What are operators governed by? | Rules. |
| What is a problem space? | All possible states that could occur when solving a problem. |
| What is means-end analysis? | A way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. |
| What are subgoals? | Small goals that help create intermediate states that are closer to the goal. |
| What is the progression of problem solving in the Newell & Simon approach? | Problems begin in an initial state, continues through a number of intermediate states, reaching the goal state. The person decides what operators to take by using means-end analysis to search the problem space, creating subgoals leading to a solution. |
| What is a search space? | A set of choices at each step in solving the problem as determined by the problem |
| What are the advantages of using subgoals? | 1. Problems are easier to break down if we break them down into different subgoals 2. Knowing an intermediate problem state makes it possible to avoid searching dead-end paths |
| What are the limitations of using subgoals? | 1. Helpful intermediate states are not always obvious 2. Reaching one subgoal need not result in another subgoal becoming immediately obvious 3. It is dependent upon working memory capacity constraints |
| What are two differences between the Newell & Simon approach and the Gestalt approach? | 1. Gestalt: Concerned with restructuring of problem representation, relies heavily on insight 2. N&S: Concerned with search process that occurs between initial and goal states, relies heavily on a systematic search for solution through problem space |
| What are three similarities between the Newell & Simon approach and the Gestalt approach? | 1. Process of problem solving depends heavily on representation of problem in mind 2. Initial stating of problem can affect its difficulty 3. Deals with well-defined problems but not ill-defined problems |
| What is analogical transfer? | It requires the problem solver to use the solution to a similar problem (source problem) to solve the current problem (target problem). |
| What are the advantages of analogical transfer? | It is not dependent on WM constraints as it depends more on LTM |
| What is the source problem? | The story or problem that shares similarities with the target problem and illustrates the solution for the target problem. |
| What is the target problem? | The problem to be solved. |
| What are the steps of analogical transfer? | 1. Noticing: identifying an analogous relationship between source and target problem 2. Mapping: Connect corresponding elements of source problem with target problem 3. Applying: Generate a parallel solution from source problem to target problem |
| What are surface features? | The specific elements that make up the problem |
| What are structural features? | Underlying principles governing the solution. |
| What is the main reason for analogical failure? | People focused on surface features instead of structural features |
| Describe Holyoak & Koh 's (1987) experiment and results on surface features and analogical transfer. | Subjects presented the radiation problem (source) and lightbulb problem (target). One groups were taught about source, the other not. 81% in first group solved vs 20%. Excellent analogical transfer due to high surface similarity between rays and lasers. |
| Describe Holyoak & Koh 's (1987) study & results on structural features and analogical transfer. | Subjects presented either laser-too-intense or laser-too-weak version of lightbulb problem (source) and solve radiation problem (target). 69% solved vs 33% solved. Analogical transfer improved by making structural features more similar. |
| What is analogical encoding? | It is a technique that allows people to discover the similarity of structural features by having them compare two cases that illustrate a principle. |
| How did Gentner & Goldin-Meadow (2003) teach analogical encoding to their subjects? | Subjects taught 2 grps 2 types of negotiation styles, then solve 2 sample cases using styles taught. Participants were then given a new case that can be solved using either technique. Subjects often stuck with what they were taught. |
| Why is comparing source stories a good way to achieve analogical encoding? | It forces subjects to pay attention to structural features that enhance their ability to solve other problems. |
| What are the limitations of analogies? | 1. Not a lot of people can use the analogy unless prompted (i.e., given a hint) 2. Incorrect use of analogy could lead to incorrect solution for problem solving |
| What are experts? | People who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that particular field. |
| How do experts solve problems differently from non-experts? | - Experts' more knowledge about their field - pattern recognition • Experts’ knowledge organized differently from novices’ - sorting by structural features = more effective solving • Experts spend more time analyzing problems - better understanding |
| What is creativity characterised by? | 1. Divergent thinking - thinking that is open-ended, involving large number of potential solutions 2. Usefulness of solutions developed |
| Describe one example of creative analogical problem solving. | Odon device (birth canal baby extraction) from "removing a cork from a bottle trick" Youtube video using the same principle: inflating a bag inside the uterus and pulling the bag out, bringing the baby with it. |
| What are the four stages of creative problem solving (Basadur et al., 2000)? | 1. Problem generation 2. Problem formulation 3. Problem solving 4. Solution implementation. |
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