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PSYCH 107 Ch. 4-7
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what is consciousness? | awareness of things inside and surrounding us (AROUSAL) |
| waking | thoughts, feelings, clear sensations |
| altered state | short in quality patterns of mental health - may lose awareness of surr. |
| examples of altered states | daydreams, sleep/dreams, drug influence (inc. caffeine), meditation, hypnosis |
| what is a daydream? | temp, dettach. from surr. = more inwardly focused |
| sleep | most common altered state of consciousness |
| circadian ryhthm | 24 hr bodily rhythm |
| hypothalamus | influences glandular system inc. PINEAL GLAND=melatonin |
| suprachiasmatic nucleus | within hypothalamus; internal clock that tells body when to WAKE/SLEEP; controls body temp. |
| ultrodian rhythm | 90 min bodily rhythm |
| body temp. when sleeping and to sleep better | cold temp. |
| microsleeps | sleeps lasting a few sec. (if you are deprived) |
| sleep deprivation | impairs focus and results in irritability |
| Why do we sleep?: Adaptive Theory | animals evolved sleep patters to avoid predators by sleeping when most predators are active |
| Why do we sleep?: Restorative Theory | sleep replenishes chems. and repairs cell damage |
| infant REM sleep vs. adult REM sleep | 50% vs 20% |
| REM sleep | rapid eye movement = dreaming; decreases as you age; dramatically decreases in first 10 years of life |
| EEG Patters: Beta waves | smaller/faster; wide awake & mentally active |
| EEG Patterns: Alpha waves | larger/slower; relaxed or on verge of sleep |
| EEG Patterns: Theta waves | more larger/more slower; light sleep |
| the gentle tyrant | sleep bc everyone must do it |
| SCN is sensitive to | light |
| seorotonin | its receptors can promote or inhibit sleep |
| when sleeping., body temp. is | at its lowest level |
| when sleep deprived tasks that are | harder=simple; simple=harder bc know they must focus on harder tasks than on simple tasks |
| REM sleep | voluntary moves. inhibited; dreaming occurs here mostly; physiologically active ; 90% of dreaming takes place |
| NREM sleep | body is free to move; lighter to deep sleep; restful sleep |
| delta waves | deep sleep; largest and slowest waves |
| nightmares | REM sleep- can't move bc sleep paralysis |
| night terrors | NREM sleep- can move |
| REM rebound | increase in REM sleep if meds prevented it the night before |
| sleepwalking/ somnambulism | 20% of pop.; partially hereditary; more common in boys and childhood |
| sleep apnea | extreme snoring, temp. no breathing, unrestful sleep; 5-25%; can cause heart problems & caused by obesity; can be treated w uvula removal or CPAC device |
| narcolepsy | 1 in 2,000; 'sleep seizure', |
| freud | dreams as wishful thinking; ID is fulfilled bc doesn't know diff. betw. reality and fantasy |
| manifest content | literal dream |
| latent content | hidden and symbolic meaning |
| Activation synthesis hypothesis | dreams are products of pons, another type of thinking, brain synthesis (puts together) memories and experiences to make dreams |
| Modified ASH | brain uses recent days' info. and experiences from waking hours. |
| old & new test. & Greeks and Romans | God(s) speak thru dreams |
| freud saying of dreams | "Royal road to the unconscious" |
| do animals dream? | most mammals experience REM sleep so YES |
| hypnosis | altered state of consciousness; susceptible to suggestion |
| hypnotherapy | 1. induction (narrow's person's focus) 2. deepening (get person more relaxed) 3. therapy work (help w problem) 4. termination/ debriefing (return to method of deepening but reversed) [ex. staircase] |
| hypnosis can | temp. amnesia; reduce pain; alter sensory impressions; help relax |
| hypnosis can't | inc. strength; enhance memory reliably; regress person to an earlier age or life |
| how does hypnosis work | produces change by accessing & focusing the mental resources of the patient (magnifying glass w sunlight) |
| meditation | training in methods of self-regulation to produce relaxation or other physiological changes |
| psychoactive drugs | drugs that alter thinking |
| physical dependence | body is unable to function w/o the drug; withdrawal; tolerance; negative reinforcement; drug tolerance = need larger doses to get a high |
| negative reinforcement | takes away bad feels |
| psychological dependence | feel drug is needed to continue feeling of wellbeing; positive reinforcement |
| positive reinforcement | gives good feels |
| depressants | slow down activity of nervous system ex. alcohol ---narcotics: opium related |
| hallucinogens | change perceptions (weed, LSD, PCP, ecstasy) |
| stimulants | increase activity of nervous system (amphetamine, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine) |
| can be hypnotized | 80%; they have active decision-making and attention brain areas that are active |
| good hypnotic subjects | 40% |
| basic suggestion effect | tendency of ppl to act as if behavior is out of their control bc they have excuse of their actions falling under hypnotist's responsibility |
| hypnosis theory-DISSOCIATION | ''the hidden observer'' ; part of person's mind is aware as the conscious mind in under hypnosis ex. reaching a destination and not being sure ow u drove their |
| hypnosis theory-SOCIAL ROLE-PLAYING: SOCIAL-COGNITIVE EXPLANATION | ppl only play the role of being under hypnosis w/o even knowing it; ppl who do not know what hypnotism looks like can't be hypnotized |
| amphetamines | stimulants made in a lab rather than found in nature ; depress appetite (mild-caffeine); not extra energy just burning up reserves |
| crack cocaine addiction | 3/4 of ppl who use it become addicted |
| nicotine | 99% of ppl who use it become addicted; more addictive than heroin and alcohol |
| barbiturates | major depressants; can cause death by stopping heart and breathing |
| benzodiazepines | minor depressants; used to lower stress and anxiety (valium, xanax, halcion, etc.) |
| opium | stops pain; when it leaves system person is vulnerable to pain bc body has stopped producing endorphins; produces narcotics; used in morphine |
| morphine | "God's own medicine" |
| heroin | thought to be a purer form of morphine that was believed not to produce the undesirable side effects of morphine but NOPE big mistake; more addictive than morphine and opium |
| lucid dreaming | about 50% of pop. has had at least 1 dream; ppl can be taught to do this |
| sleep paralysis | REM sleep so almost awake |
| learning | relatively perm. change in behavior by experience or practice |
| ivan pavlov | classical conditioning; salivating dogs; primarily interested in digestion not learning |
| unconditioned stimulus | orig. naturally occurring stimulus-->leads to involuntary response ex. food for the dogs |
| unconditioned response ` | automatic response to uncond. stimulus ex. salivation of the dogs |
| conditioned stimulus | any kind of stimulus cam be associated w the UCS ex. food bowl before food was in it-->it used to be neutral stimulus bc t had no effect |
| conditioned response | learned response to conditioned stimulus; not as strong as UCR |
| acquisition | when neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus as a result of learning |
| CS must come | before UCS |
| CS and UCS | must come timely close (<5 sec.) |
| NS must be | paired w UCS many times for conditioning to occur |
| CS must be something | that stands out from competing stimuli |
| stimulus generalization | reacting to similar orig. stimulus |
| stimulus discrimination | finding the real stimulus from the fakes |
| extinction | CR is no longer present |
| spontaneous recovery | CR comes up briefly when CS is present but response is weaker and ephemeral |
| high-order conditioning | strong cond. stimulus is paired w neutral stimulus which becomes 2nd CS ex. adding a finger snap before metronome plays |
| conditioned taste aversion | nausea response to a taste that resulted in nausea occurring after only 1 assoc. |
| biological preparedness | tendency to learn certain assoc. w only 1 or dew pairings due to survival value of learning |
| stimulus substitution | CS actives same path that UCS activates |
| Operant conditioning | 2nd type of learning; VOLUNTARY behavior as opposed to classical conditioning's learned reflex behavior; skinner---reinforcement |
| thorndikes law of effect | responses followed by pleasurable consequences are repeated |
| conditioned emo. response | learning phobias |
| vicarious conditioning | being conditioned by watching someone else respond to a stimulus ex. school vaccination |
| b.f. skinner | reinforcement; behaviorist; said humans made up free will |
| primary reinforcer | fulfills a basic need ex. candy bar satisfies hunger |
| secondary reinforcer | gets reinforcement props. from being assoc. w past primary reinforcements ex. money |
| schedules of reinforcement | when and how often to reinforce behavior |
| continuous reinforcement | always getting the reinforcement whether pos. or neg. ex. money into vending machine always gets soda out |
| partial reinforcement | getting reinforcement only some times |
| partial reinforcement 4 schedules | 1. fixed interval 2. variable ratio 3. fixed ratio 4. variable interval |
| classical conditioning | reflex--before response |
| operant conditioning | voluntary---consequence |
| most resistant to extinction | variable ratio |
| punishment | any consequence that makes a response less likely |
| drawbacks to severe punishment | fear & anxiety, lying, avoidance, modeling of aggression |
| punishment should be | immediate, consistent, and paired w reinforcement of correct behaviors |
| discriminative stimulus | SIGNAL; cue to specific response for reinforcement ex. door says ''pull'' so you pull |
| general | same behavior to diff. but similar stimulus as orig. stimulus |
| discrimination | refusing to do response bc stimulus is different |
| spontaneous recovery | learned behavior may pop up w/o reinforcement |
| instinctive drift | animal's cond. behavior reverts to genetic patterns |
| behavior modification | use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior |
| cognitive learning theory | behaviorism and cognitive psych. MERGE |
| tolman | learning occurred w/o reinforcement in rat groups; latent learning |
| latent learning | application of reinforcements later on outperformed those who had reinforcements since the beginning; learning can happen w/o reinforcement |
| insight learning | kohler: sudden perception of r.ships among elements of a problem (like epiphany) ex. chimps learned to stack boxes to get bananas after a couple of days |
| learned helplessness | tendency of failure to escape a sit. bc of history of repeated failures (depression) |
| observational learning | learning new behavior by matching a model behave (vicarious reinforcement) |
| learning vs performance | can still learn w/o having to actually perform behavior in order to learn it |
| 4 elements of observational learning | 1. attention 2. memory 3. imitation 4. desire |
| memory | need in order to learn; most think its like a big file cabinet; really they are living & dynamic constructions that can change---syst. that senses, organizes, stores, alters, and retrieves info. |
| processes of memory | 1. encoding 2. storage 3. retrieval |
| encoding | converting environ. + mental stimuli into memory brain codes |
| storage | holding on to encoded info |
| retrieval | pulling info from storage |
| models of memory | 1. info-process model 2. parallel distributive model 3. levels of processing model |
| info-processing model | process of info storage is similar to computer processes |
| parallel distributive process model | memory processes take place @ same time; facts + images are sent to all parts of mem. syst. at once |
| levels of processing model | "deeply processed"; will be remembered better and longer |
| info process model 3 mem. systems | 1. sensory 2. STM 3. LTM |
| sensory | extremely short (<1 sec.) bc all kinds of external stimuli |
| STM | selective attention other info lost (15-30 sec) |
| LTM | retained indefinitely although some info may be hard to retrieve |
| sensory (in depth) | pattern recognition: icons/iconic (0.25-0.5 s----ex. sparklers) & echoes/echoic (3-4 s) capacity: large but limited duration: brief |
| STM (in depth) | info is held for brief time while being used |
| Working memory | active system that processes info in short term mem. |
| encoding (working memory) | primarily auditory (3-5 items) |
| chunking | when bits of info are combined into meaningful units more info can be held |
| LTM (in depth) | capacity: seemingly unlimited |
| elaborative rehearsal | method of transf. info from STM --> LTM by making info meaningful |
| procedural memory | implicit/nondeclarative; don't voluntary recall (MUSCLE MEMORY) |
| declarative memory | explicit/ work to recall |
| semantic memory | facts ad general knowledge |
| episodic memory | events experienced by a person |
| positive reinforcement | adding good things |
| negative reinforcement | removing bad things |
| positive punishment | adding bad things |
| negative punishment | removing good things |
| weakens response | punishment |
| strengthens response | reinforcement |
| making reinforcements effective... | 1. do immediately after response 2. do only for desired behavior |
| fixed | same number of time or responses in each case; predictable |
| variable | diff. number or time in each case |
| interval schedule | TIMING is important |
| ratio schedule | number of RESPONSES is important |
| retrieval cue | a stimulus for remembering; more cues=easier retrieval |
| encoding specificity | when physical surroundings become encoded as retrieval cues for specific mems. |
| state-decedent learning | mems. formed during specific physiological or psych. states will be easier to remember while in similar state |
| serial position effect (displacement of STM) | 1. primacy efect 2. recency effect |
| primacy effect | tend to remember the first exposure |
| recency effect | tend to remember the recent exposure |
| automatic encoding | flashbulb mems. : due to unexpected, highly emo, events (know surroundings bc of a strong emo. event) |
| leading questions | can change what ppl ''remember'' |
| certainty | does not mean accuracy |
| confabulation | assuming what happened bc of gaps |
| false memory syndrome | creation of false or inaccurate mems. bc of others' suggestions possibly but not necessarily bc of HYPNOSIS |
| encoding failure | failure to process info into mem. |
| memory trace | (FADE T: better for STM)) physical change in brain as a memory is formed |
| decay | (FADE T: better for STM ) loss of memory bc of time during which memory trace is not used |
| proactive interference | (COVERED UP T: better for LTM) info learned earlier interferes w info learned later |
| retroactive interference | (COVERED UP T: better for LTM) info learned later interferes w info learned earlier |
| infantile memory | inability to retrieve memories from before 3-4 y/o most likely bc of implicit nature of infant memory |
| the curve of forgetting | most info forgotten in the beginning less memory lost during sleep than when awake |
| thinking | mental ability for org., understanding, & communicating,----mental manipulations of "representation" of the world |
| mental representation: analogical | images of the world |
| mental representation: symbolic | abstract---usually words |
| mental image | picture-like reps. of objects and events |
| advantages of mental pic | can picture something |
| disadvantages of mental pic | can't show it to someone else |
| kosslyn's fictional island | a. imagine self in island by looking at a map and moving towards diff locations in it |
| concepts | idea that reps. category of objects, events, or activities ex. dog |
| superordinate concepts | ex. fruit |
| basic level type | ex. apple |
| subordinate concept | ex. macintosh apple |
| formal concepts | defined by specific rules or features |
| natural concepts | a result of real world experiences |
| prototype | example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept ex. finch as a bird over penguin as bird |
| problem solving & decision making | cognition used to reach goal by thinking/behaving in certain ways |
| trial & error | one possible solution after another is tried until successful---better learning done by making mistakes than getting it right |
| algorithms | specific steps for solving certain probs |
| heuristic | short cut methods/guesses based on experience ''rule of thumb'' 1. availability 2. representative 3. means end analysis |
| availability | freq. estimate base on ease of recall |
| representative | person is tall so they must play basketball |
| means end analysis | starts @ end or goal and works backwards to get means |
| insight | sudden perception of a solution to a problem (''Aha!'' moment) |
| barriers | 1. confirmation bias 2. mental set 3. functional fixedness |
| confirmation bias | search for evidence that fits out pre-existing beliefs ex. ''I only watch Fox news'' |
| mental set | persist in using past problem solving patterns |
| function fixedness | thinking about only the most typical function of an object ex. ''Never thought a screwdriver could be used that way'' |
| creativity | solving problems by combining ideas or behaviors in a new way |
| convergent thinking | all lines of problem solving lead to single answer |
| divergent thinking | from one idea many ideas or possibilities come from it |
| intelligence | ability to learn from experience, acquire knowledge, and adapt |
| spearman's G factor | 1904 saw intel. as 2 diff abilities 1. G factor: general intel. (global) [vocab highly related] 2. S factor: specific intel. (ex. arithmetic) |
| gardners multiple intels. | 1. verbal-linguistic 2. musical 3. logical-mathematical 4. visual-spatial 5. movement 6. interpersonal 7. intrapersonal 8. naturalist 9. existentialism |
| sternberg's triarchic T | 1. analytical 2. creative 3. practical |
| analytical | break down problems to components |
| creative | deal w novel ways to solve problems |
| practical | commons sense |
| measuring intel. | 1. stanford binet IQ test 2. wechsler test |
| stanford binet IQ test | 1916 from Eur. to Amer.; to see if kids would need extra help in school in future comparisons across age groups (@ this age this much IQ is avg.); 100 is mean; better for younger children |
| wechsler tests | 1939 yield 4 index scores from derived verbal & nonverbal subtests + overall score of intel. 1. verbal comprehension 2. perceptual reasoning 3. working memory 4. process speed |
| test construction | 1. validity 2. reliability 3. standardization |
| validity | degree to which test measures what its supposed to (accuracy) |
| reliability | tendency of test to yield same results w same conditions (precision) |
| standardization | process of giving test to a large group of ppl that reps. the kind of ppl for whom the test is designed for |
| IQ tests freq. | criticized for being culturally biased questions may relate to test creators' own experiences not to those of people of other cultures or socioecon, levels |
| intellectual disability | less than 70 IQ, adaptive behavior is below appropriate for their age, limitations must be present before 18 yrs old |
| diagnosis of intellectual disability | DSM-5 diagnosis based on deficit in intellectual function |
| causes of intellectual disability | 1. familial retardation 2. down syndrome 3. fetal alcohol syndrome 4. fragile x syndrome |
| familial retardation | a. environment b. parental care c. spacing of births d. nutrition |
| down syndrome | deficit in structure of chromosome 21 |
| fragile x syndrome | deficiency in a protein needed for brain development in males |
| giftedness | uppermost 2 % w IQ greater than 130 |
| terman's termties | a. longitude study of 1,528 kids b. IQ 130-200 altho not much intel. difference c. sociologically well adjusted, skilled, leaders, successful (as opposed to egghead stereotype) d. methodological flaws---only white kids and non random selection |
| emotional intelligence | EQ----awareness and understanding of own and others' emos. |
| corr. betw. IQ & genetic relatedness | 0.50 |
| language | system for combining symbols to communicate & represent mental activity |
| basic elements of language Pt.1 | 1. phonemes: basic units of sound 2. morphemes: smallest unit of meaning 3. PRAGMATICS: pratical & social parts of comm. (implied command) |
| basic elements of language Pt.2 | 4. semantics: words for determining meaning 5. syntax: rules for combining words & phrases 6. grammar: rules for lang. use & structure |
| linguistic relativity hypothesis | thought process & concepts controlled by lang. how many Inuit words for snow |
| cognitive universalism | concepts (ex. color) are universal & affect lang. dev. |
| communication vs lang. | instinctual behavior vs symbolic thought |
| kanzi the chimp | recog.150 words & some ability to follow complex instructions |
| punishment is more | difficult than reinforcement & short term |
| punishment must be | 1. done immediately after the behavior (w reinforcement too) 2. consistent (consistent punishment for same bad behavior must follow thru & can slightly increase later times but not decrease) 3. paired w reinforcement of good behavior |
| shaping | teaching smaller behaviors little by little to achieve a greater goal----skinner |
| extinction classical conditioning | removal of UCS (that acts as reinforcer betw. CS--CR) |
| extinction operant conditioning | removal of reinforcers |
| spontaneous recovery CC | recurrence of conditioned response after extinction |
| spontaneous recovery OC | remember old tricks when learning new tricks |
| instinctive drift | when animals revert to their instincts and can no longer learn thru operant conditioning |
| token economy | secondary reinforcers---physical rewards for good behavior |
| time out | takes child away from attention; 1 min for each year of age; max 10 min or will forget why being punished |
| applied behavior analysis (ABA) | modern behavior modification; used w children w autism; Lovaas; |
| biofeedback | ex. heart rate; indicators of health for things such as stress that can be treated |
| neurofeedback | trying to change brain feedback; EEG; recently MRI and fMRI |
| cognitive learning T | tolman, kohler, seligman |
| cognitive map | mental map the rats made fro the maze |
| kohler | insight; chimps w sticks and boxes trying to get bananas |
| tolman | latent learning; rats w no reinforcement at start but yes later on outperformed those w constant reinforcement |
| seligman | learned helplessness; dogs in boxes having to jump to safe other side but would curl up after a while when they learned they could not jump to other side |
| observational learning | learning by observing others perform behavior |
| learning/performance distinction | learning can happen without performing (a kind of latent learning) |
| bandora's bobo doll | learning/performance distinction |
| learning | relatively perm change in behavior |
| CS must _________ the CR by only a ___ _________ | precede -- few seconds |
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