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chapter 5, 8,7 vocab
psycholgoy
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Germinal stage | the first prenatal stage of development, which begins at conception and last 2 weeks |
| Zygote | single cell that results when a sperm fertilizes an egg |
| Embryo | a developing organism from 2 weeks until about 8 weeks after conception |
| Embryonic stage | the second prenatal stage, from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception, when all the major organs form. |
| Fetal stage | the third prenatal stage, which begins with the formation of bone cells 8 weeks after conception and ends at birth |
| Neural migration | the movement of neurons from one part of the fetal brain to their more permanent destination, this occurs during months 3-5 of the fetal stage |
| Prenatal programming | the process by which events in the womb alter the development of physical and psychological health |
| Teratogens | substance that can disrupt normal prenatal development and cause lifelong deficits |
| Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder(FASD) | a consequence of prenatal alcohol exposure that causes multiple problems, notably brain damage |
| Temperament | biologically based tendency to behave in particular ways from very early in life |
| Personality | the unique and relatively enduring set of behaviors, feelings, thoughts, and motives that characterize an individual |
| Pruning | the degradation of synapses and dying off of neurons that are not strengthened by experience |
| Sensorimotor stage | piaget’s first stage of cognitive development (ages 0-2), when infants learn about the world by using their senses and moving their bodies |
| Object permanence | the ability to realize that objects still exist when they are not being sensed |
| Preoperational stage | the second major stage of cognitive development( ages 2-5), which begins with the emergence of symbolic thought |
| Animistic thinking | a belief that inanimate objects are alive |
| Egocentrism | viewing the world from one’s own perspective and not being capable of seeing things from another person’s perspective |
| Conservation | the recognition that, when some properties(such as shape) of an object change, other properties(such as volume) remain constant |
| Concrete operational stage | piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, which spans ages 6-11 during which the child can perform mental operations, such as reversing, on real objects or events |
| Formal operational stage | piaget’s final stage of cognitive development, from age 11 or 12 through adulthood, when formal logic possible |
| Zone of proximal development | the distance between what a child can learn alone and what that child can learn assisted by someone else, usually an adult |
| Theory of mind | ideas and knowledge about how other peoples minds work |
| Preconventional level | first level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, focusing on avoiding punishment or maximizing rewards |
| Conventional level | the second level in kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, during which the person values caring, trust and relationship as well as the social order and lawfulness |
| Postconventional level | third level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, in which the person recognizes universal moral rules that may trump unjust or immoral local rules |
| Imprinting | the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth |
| Attachment | the strong emotional connection that develops early in life between infants and their caregivers |
| Separation anxiety | the distress reaction babies show when they are separated from their primary caregivers( typically shown at around 9 month of age) |
| Securely attached | an attachment style characterized by infants who will gradually explore new situations when the caregiver leaves and initiate contact when the caregiver returns after separation |
| Social referencing | the ability to make use of social and emotional information from another person –especially a caregiver- in an uncertain situation |
| Emotional competence | the ability to control emotions and to know when it is appropriate to express certain emotions |
| Adolescence | the transition between childhood and early adulthood |
| Puberty | the period when sexual maturation begins, it marks the beginning of adolescence |
| Menarche | the first menstrual period |
| Spermarche | first ejaculation |
| Emerging adult | the transitional phase between adolescence and young adulthood, it includes ages 18-25 |
| Young adult | the development stages that usually happens by the mid 20’s when people complete the key developmental task of emerging adulthood |
| Intimacy | as defined by erikson, the ability to fuse one’s identity with another’s without the fear of losing it. |
| Individuation | the process of a persons personality becoming whole and full |
| Generativity | a term Erik Erikson used to describe the process in adulthood of creating new ideas, products or people |
| Stagnation | a situation in which an adult become more self-focused than oriented toward others and doe not contribute in a productive way to society or family |
| Fluid intelligence | raw mental ability, pattern recognition, and abstract reasoning that can be applied to a problem one has never confronted before |
| Crystallized intelligence | the kind of knowledge that one gains from experience and learning, education, and practice |
| Dementia | a loss of mental function, in which many cognitive process are impaired such as the ability to remember, reason, solve problems, make decisions and use language |
| Alzheimer’s disease | a degenerative disease marked by progressive cognitive decline and characterized by a collection of symptoms, including confusion, memory los, mood swings, and eventually loss of physical function |
| Learning | an enduring change in behavior that occurs with experience |
| Association | the process by which two pieces of information from the environment are repeatedly linked so that we begin to connect them in our minds |
| Conditioning | a from of association learning in which behavior are triggered by association with events in the environment |
| Classic conditioning | a form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus become associated with a stimulus to which one has an automatic, inborn response |
| Unconditioned response (UCR) | the natural automatic, inborn, reaction to a stimulus |
| Unconditioned stimulus(UCS) | environmental input that always produced the same unlearned response |
| Conditioned stimulus(CS) | a previously natural input that an organism learns to associate with a UCS |
| Conditioned response(CR) | a behavior that an organism learns to perform when presented |
| Stimulus generalization | extension of the association between UCS and CS to include a broad array of similar stimuli |
| Stimulus discrimination | restriction of a CR( such as salivation) only to exactly the CS to which it was conditioned |
| Extinction | the weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response in the absence of the pairing of UCS and CS |
| Spontaneous recovery | the sudden reappearance of an extinguished response |
| Law of effect | the consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated |
| Operant conditioning | the process of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior |
| Reinforce | an internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior |
| Primary reinforce | innate, unlearned reinforce that satisfy biological needs( such as water, food) |
| Secondary( conditioned) reinforce | reinforces that are learned by association, usually via classical conditioning( such as money, grades, peer approval) |
| Positive reinforcement | the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur |
| Negative reinforcement | the removal of a stimulus after a behavior to increase the frequency of that behavior |
| Punishment | a stimulus that decrease the frequency of a behavior |
| Positive punishment | the addition of a stimulus that decreases behavior |
| Negative punishment | the removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior |
| Skinner box | a simple chamber used for the operant conditioning of small animals |
| Shaping | the reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior |
| Schedules of reinforcement | patterns of intermittent reinforcement distinguished by whether reinforcement occurs after a set number response or after a certain amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement |
| Continuous reinforcement | reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs |
| Intermittent reinforcement | reinforcement of a behavior- but not after every response |
| Fixed-ratio(FR) schedule | a pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which reinforcement follows a set number of responses |
| Variable- ration(VR) schedule | a pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes |
| Fixed-interval (FI) schedule | a pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are always reinforced after a set period of time has passed |
| Variable- interval(VI) schedule | A pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are reinforced after time periods of different durations have passed |
| Conditioned taste aversion | the learned avoidance of a particular taste or food |
| Instinctive drift | learned behavior that shifts toward instinctive, unlearned behavior tendencies |
| Biological constraint model | a view on learning which proposes that some behavior are inherently more likely to be learned than others |
| Latent learning | learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later, when reinforcement occurs |
| Enactive learning | learning by doing so |
| Observational learning | learning by watching the behavior of others |
| Social learning theory | a description of the kind of learning that occurs when we model or imitate the behavior of others |
| Modeling | the imitation of behaviors performed by others |
| Ethology | the scientific study of animal behavior |
| Behavior modification | principles of operant conditioning used to change behavior |
| Memory | the ability to store and use information; also the store of what has been learned and membered |
| Three-stage model of memory | the classification of memories based on duration as sensory, short-term, and long-term |
| Sensory memory | the part memory that holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time, usually about half a second or less |
| Short-term memory | the part of memory that temporarily(2-30 seconds) stores a limited amount of information before it is either transferred to long- term storage or forgotten |
| Long-term memory | the part of memory that has the capacity to store a vast amount of information for as little as 30 seconds and as long as a lifetime |
| Working memory | the part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand: oftern used interchangeably with short-term memory |
| Chunking | the process of breaking down a list of items to be remembered into a smaller set of meaningful units |
| Rehearsal | the process of repeatedly practicing material, so that it enters long memory |
| Serial position effect | the tendency to have better recall for items in a list according to their position in the list |
| Implicit memory | the type of memory made up of knowledge based on previous experience, such as skills we perform automatically once we have mastered them;it resides outside conscious awareness |
| Procedural memory | the type of memory made up of implicit knowledge for almost any behavior or physical skill we have learned |
| Priming | A kind of implicit memory that arises when recall is improved by earlier exposure to the same or similar stimuli |
| Explicit memory | knowledge that consist of the conscious recall of facts and events; also know as declarative memory |
| Semantic memory | the form of memory that recalls facts and generally knowledge , such as what we learn in school |
| Episodic memory | the form of memory that recalls the experiences we have had |
| Encoding | the process by which the brain attends to, takes in, and integrates new information; he first stage of long-term memory formation |
| Automatic processing | encoding of information that occurs with little effort or conscious attention to the task |
| Effortful processing | encoding of information that occurs with careful attention and conscious effort |
| Levels of processing | the concept that, the more deeply people encode information, the better they will recall |
| Mnemonic device | a method, such as a rhyme or an acronym, devised to help people remember information |
| Consolidation | the process of ebstablishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory; the second stage of long- term memory formation |
| Storage | the retention of memory over time; the third stage of long term memory formation |
| Hierarchies | a way of organzing related pieces of information from the most specific |
| False memories | memories for events that never happened but were suggested by someone or something |
| Recovered memory | a memory supposedly from a real event, it was encoded and stored but not retrieved for a long period of time, until a later event bring it suddenly to consciousness |
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