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Psych
Chapters 7 and 8
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Learning | A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience |
| How Do We Learn? | by association |
| Classical conditioning | learn to associate two stimuli and anticipate significant events |
| Operant conditioning | learn to associate a response to a consequence, allowing us to repeat acts with good results, but avoid acts that bring bad results |
| Observational learning | learning new behaviors by watching others (association without direct experience) |
| Who do we associate classical conditioning with? | Ivan Pavlov |
| unconditioned stimulus (US) | a stimulus that automatically elicits an unconditioned response |
| What was the US in Ivan Pavlov's experience? | the food |
| unconditioned response (UR) | an automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus |
| What was the UR in Ivan Pavlov's experience? | the dog salivating |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | : a neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a particular response after being paired with the unconditional stimulus |
| conditioned response (CR) | the response that the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning procedure |
| What was the CS in Ivan Pavlov's experience? | the bells |
| What was the CR in Ivan Pavlov's experience? | the dog salivating |
| During the conditioning, the neutral stimulus is paired with what to form the UR? | The US |
| After conditioning, the neutral stimulus which is now the CS, causes salivation which is now the what? | The CR |
| What automatically causes something to happen? | The US |
| What is the THING that automatically happens? | The UR |
| What was neutral but isn't anymore? | The CS |
| If you do the conditioning right, who two things are the same? | The UR and the CR |
| What is the thing no one knows about? (neutral thing...like a product) | The CS |
| In celebrity endorsement, what is the car? | The CS |
| In celebrity endorsement, what is the celebrity? | The US |
| What is the thing or person that is well know? | The US |
| Five major conditioning processes: | Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Generalization discrimination |
| Acquisition | the process of learning/pairing 2 stimuli CS and US |
| Optimal time in b/w the 2 stimuli is about _____ | 1/2 a second |
| When a conditioned stimulus is presented without an accompanying unconditioned stimulus, ________ will soon take place. | Extinction |
| Extinction | weakening of the conditioned association -unlearning/unpairing of 2 stimuli |
| You can learn something then unlearn it, then randomly you respond to it again. This is _____ | Spontaneous Recovery |
| The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is _____ | generalization |
| During generalization, you are conditioned to things like the what? | The CS |
| After being bitten by his neighbor's dog, Miguel experienced fear at the sight of that dog but not at the sight of other dogs. This best illustrates the process of _______ | discrimination |
| The opposite of generalization is | discrimination |
| the learned ability to distinguish b/w a CS and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus | discrimination |
| _______ conditioning forms associations between stimuli | classical |
| _______ conditioning forms associations between behaviours and their consequences | operant |
| Who do we associate operant conditioning with? | Edward Thorndike |
| responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, while those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur is know as what? | Law of Effect |
| A stimulus that increases the probability that the response will occur again | Reinforcers |
| the strengthening of a response thru the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs | Positive reinforcement |
| the strengthening of a response thru the removal of a stimulus after the response occurred | Negative reinforcement |
| If you do good on a test, your parents might take away your curfew or give you less chores. This is an example of _____ | Negative reinforcement |
| if your parents want something to happen more, they could “add” or bribe you with money. Or they “add” food or praise as a reward. This is an example of ________ | Positive reinforcement |
| A stimulus that decreases the probability that the response will occur again | Punishment |
| the weakening of a response thru the introduction of a negative stimulus (adding a punishment basically) | Positive punishment |
| If you do something bad, your parents might give you a lecture or spanking. This is an example of ______ | Positive punishment |
| the weakening of a response thru the removal of a pleasant/desirable stimulus (taking something way as a punishment) | Negative punishment |
| Taking away a teen’s car after a speeding ticket, or giving a time out. This is an example of ________ | Negative punishment |
| _______ make something happens more | Reinforcers |
| _______ make something happen less | Punishers |
| reinforces the desire response each time it occurs | Continuous reinforcement |
| reinforces a response only part of the time | Partial reinforcement |
| Reward after a set number of responses | Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement |
| Response rate is easy and regular | Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement |
| Reward after a varying number of responses | Variable-Ratio Reinforcement |
| -Response rate is regular and high -Hard to extinguish this behaviour | Variable-Ratio Reinforcement |
| Reward after a specific time period has elapsed | Fixed-Interval Reinforcement |
| Response rate drops right after reinforcement but then increases near the end of the interval Ex. Checking e mail around the time of a delivery. | Fixed-Interval Reinforcement |
| Reward after a variable time period has elapsed | Variable-Interval Reinforcement |
| Ex. Getting a message after hours of checking email response rate is slow and steady | Variable-Interval Reinforcement |
| every 10x’s Ex. Punch cards | Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement |
| changing number of responses Ex. Slot machines | Variable-Ratio Reinforcement |
| every month, hour, year | Fixed-Interval Reinforcement |
| Changing amount of time | Variable-Interval Reinforcement |
| Door to door salesman is an example of ______ | Variable-Ratio Reinforcement |
| Checking cookies to see if they are done is an example of ______ | Fixed-Interval Reinforcement |
| learning that has persisted over time is | memory |
| Why is memory important? | -allows access to your past (basis for everything you know about yourself, friends, language, etc.) and thus, is responsible for the effortless continuity of our day-to-day experiences |
| sensory input goes into | sensory memory |
| attention/perception (encoding) goes into | working memory |
| encoding goes to | long term memory |
| making a memory | encoding |
| retaining encoded info | storage |
| assigning stored info | retrieval |
| immediate and quickly fleeting recordings of sensory information in the memory system from all 5 sense | sensory memory |
| lasts 1-2 seconds | sensory memory |
| conscious, actively processed info that can only be held briefly. Takes attention to keep from forgetting | working memory |
| limited capacity = 7 + or - 2 things | working memory |
| person’s tool knowledge of the world and of themselves | long term memory |
| limitless in size | long term memory |
| ______ enhances memory | encoding |
| our brain can automatically process and store information about | space, time and frequency |
| repeated practice leads to encoding -the more time you practice something, the less time it takes to relearn it on subsequent days of practice | rehersal |
| distributed practice leads to long term retention better than massed practice | Spacing Effect |
| Cramming is bad. Distributed practice is better for memorizing | Spacing Effect |
| recall best for first and last items in a list, whereas recall is poorer for items in the middle of list | Serial Position Effect |
| items that come first tend to be remembered best | Primacy Effect |
| items that come last tend to be remembered best | Recency Effect |
| best method for encoding of information is by its meaning (adding meaning to info so it’s more memorable) | Semantic Encoding |
| elaborate! find a way to make course material meaningful to you (add your own examples to the notes) | Semantic Encoding |
| putting info into meaningful units | Chunking |
| people can only remember 7 +/- 2 things, so ______ items together can increase memory capacity | Chunking |
| breaking down complex info into meaningful units with structure | Hierarchies (Organizing) |
| using the first letter of words to help you remember (PEMDAS) | Mnemonic |
| Find out what you don’t know BEFORE you take the exam -identifying weaknesses while studying allows you time to fix them | Test Yourself! |
| Which memory has the smallest capacity in terms of duration? | sensory memory |
| Which memory has the smallest capacity in terms of capacity? | working memory |
| .5 sec | iconic (eyes) |
| 3-4 sec | echoic (ears) |
| <1 sec | hepatic (touch) |
| short duration (20 seconds) | working memory |
| relatively large capacity, but only for an instant | sensory memory |
| getting information out of the memory store | retrieval |
| 1 way to enhance retrieval | Utilized retrieval cues |
| best cues are formed during _______ | encoding |
| memory is organized in terms of semantic connections/associations between items | Semantic Network Model |
| emotions can serves as retrieval cues (and we are better are remembering experiences that are consistent with our current mood) | state dependent |
| memory is facilitated when the situation of encoding matches the situation of retrieval | Context Effects |
| Conditioning rarely occurs when a ________ comes after a(n) _____. | CS, US |
| If one chimpanzee watches a second chimp solve a puzzle for a food reward, the first chimp may thereby learn how to solve the puzzle. This best illustrates | observational learning |
| Airline frequent flyer programs that reward customers with a free flight after every 50,000 miles of travel illustrate the use of a ________ schedule of reinforcement. | Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement |
| While taking the final exam in American history, Marie was surprised and frustrated by her momentary inability to remember the name of the first President of the United States. Her difficulty most clearly illustrates: | retrieval faliure |
| At a block party, Cyndi is introduced to eight new neighbors. Moments later, she remembers only the names of the first three and last two neighbors. Her experience illustrates | Serial Position Effect |
| During her evening Spanish exam, Janica so easily remembers the French vocabulary she studied that morning that she finds it difficult to recall the Spanish vocabulary she rehearsed that afternoon. Her difficulty best illustrates: | proactive interference |
| In a study on context cues, people learned words while on land or when they were underwater. In a later test of recall, those with the best retention had | learned the words and been tested on them in the same context |
| activating/turning on one thing that makes other things come to mind/turn on | Priming |
| unconscious activation of particular memory associations | Priming |
| after seeing or hearing rabbit, we are later more likely to spell the spoken word as h-a-r-e. This is an example of ______ | Priming |
| no retrieval cues, like an essay exam | recall |
| (retrieval cues, like a multiple choice exam | retrieval |
| is short term memory accurate? | No |
| incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event | misinformation effect |
| _______ reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event | eyewitnessess |
| ________ is given a great deal of weight in court, but it is also very inaccurate | eyewitness testimony |
| A clear and enduring memory of an emotionally significant moment or event | Flashbulb Memory |
| nability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval | forgetting |
| We can’t remember what we never encoded -never went from working memory to long term memory | Encoding Failure |
| Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay -Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve | Storage Failure |
| Although the information is encoded properly and retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed -we could lack retrieval cues or be experiencing interference | Retrieval Failure |
| info makes it to long term memory, but we fail at the recall part | Retrieval Failure |
| retrieval failure phenomenon (information available but not accessible) | Tip-of-the-Tongue |
| Unfortunately, trying harder doesn’t help, memory just springs to mind later. People usually do know: beginning letter, what it rhymes with, how many syllables the word has | Tip-of-the-Tongue |
| One piece of information interferes with the retrieval of another piece of information | interference |
| previously learned info makes it hard to recall newly acquired info | proactive interference; PRO = PREVIOUSLY |
| newly learned info makes it hard to recall previously learned information | retroactive interference |
| people unknowingly revise their memories in order to keep anxiety provoking thoughts out of conscious awareness | Motivated Forgetting |
| failure of memory caused by physical injury, disease, drug use, or psychological trauma | amnesia |
| difficulty in retrieving previous memories from before trauma, but you can make memories afterwards the trauma | Retrograde Amnesia |
| difficulty making memories since trauma, you remember stuff up until the trauma but can’t remember things after the trauma | Anterograde Amnesia |
| suffer from both retrograde AND anterograde amnesia | Total Amnesia |
| memory loss due to encephalitis and brain damage, has little memory of life before damage and can now only make memories that last for a few minutes | Clive Wearing |
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