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Psychology EXAM #1
Psychology notes for exam #1 (ch. 1, ch. 2 pp. 67-86, ch. 3-4)
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Domains of Development | Physical (body size, body systems, health, perceptual/motor capabilities) Cognition (intellectual abilities, memory, problem solving, language) Emotional/Social (emotional communication, relationships, behavior) |
| Periods of Development | Prenatal (conception-birth) Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth-2 years) Early Childhood (2-6 years) Middle Childhood (6-11 years) Adolescence (11-18 years) Emerging Adulthood (18-mid/late 20s) |
| Holistic Approach | All of the domains (physical, cognitive, emotional/social) are interrelated |
| Issues in Human Development | Continuous/Discontinuous One Course/Many Courses of Development Active/Passive Roles Nature/Nurture |
| Continuous Development | A process of adding more of the same skills that were there to begin with (change in quantity) EXAMPLE: memory = there to begin with; quantity of memory capacity changes (Tree growing) |
| Discontinuous Development | A process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at SPECIFIC times (change in quality) EXAMPLE: differences in thinking (2 y.o. vs. 6 y.o.); logical vs. illogical thinking (caterpillar to butterfly; different stages) |
| Nature | Inborn, biological Based on genetic inheritance |
| Nurture | Physical/Social World: family, socioeconomic status, affluence/poverty, neighborhoods, schools, culture |
| Stability in Development: Nature vs. Nurture | Individuals high or low in a characteristic remain so at later ages due to heredity Early experience may have a lifelong impact |
| Plasticity in Development | Change is possible, based on EXPERIENCES |
| Heritability Estimate | Measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits are due to heredity (50%) Obtained from kinship studies (twins-identical-same genes) Estimates range 0-1.00 |
| Epigenesist | Researchers take issue with the same supremacy of heredity and purpose bidirectional influences between heredity and environment (gene-environment interaction is viewed as driven by genes) |
| Methylation | How environment can alter the expression of genes |
| Gene-Environment Interactions | Passive Correlation (parent played sports--child physical attractiveness) Active Correlation Niche-Picking |
| Resilience | Ability to adapt affectively in the face of threats to development FACTORS: personal characteristics a warm parental relationship social support outside the immediate family community resources and opportunities |
| Theoretical Concepts and names of Psychologists that represent them | Theory - orderly, integrated set of statements that describe/explain/predict behavior Freud - psychosexual Erikson - psychosocial Skinner - reinforcement/punishment Bandura - self-efficiency |
| Punishment | Withdrawal of Privileges POSITIVE PUNISHMENT: not putting on seatbelt, dinging noise NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT: taking away something good |
| Reinforcement | POSITIVE REINFOREMENT: giving a bone to a dog learning a new trick NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: using a towel to dry hands |
| Observational Learning | Learning through observation, modeling (baby claps after mother), (teen wearing same cloths as friends), (child slaps the way he is punished at home) |
| Imprinting | Early following behavior; ensures that the young will stay close to the mother and be fed and protected from danger (baby birds) |
| Microsystem | Innermost level of the environment; consists of activities and interaction patterns in the child's immediate surroundings |
| Mesosystem | Second level of the environment; encompasses connections between microsystems (home, school, neighborhood, child-care center) |
| Exosystem | Consists of social settings that do not contain children but that affect children's experiences in immediate settings |
| Macrosystem | Outermost level of the environment; consists of cultural values, laws, customs and resources |
| Chronosystem | Temporal dimension of environment (time); life changes can be imposed on the child, as children get older they select, modify and create their own settings and experiences |
| Research Designs | Correlational Design Longitudinal Study Cross-Sectional Study Longitudinal-Sequential Study |
| Correlational Design | Look at relations as they exist in the real world; allow predictions |
| Longitudinal Study | Some children observed/tested repeatedly at different points in their lives; micro genetic study ADVANTAGES: answers continuity questions DISADVANTAGES: practice effect, expensive, cohort effects |
| Cross-Sectional Study | Children of different ages tested at one point in their development ADVANTAGES: convenience DISADVANTAGES: continuity not addressed, cohort effects |
| Longitudinal-Sequential Study | Different sequence of children tested longitudinally ADVANTAGES: addresses continuity, deals with patience and cohort effects DISADVANTAGES: more expensive and time consuming |
| Correlations | Allow Prediction Magnitude - strength (between 0-1); closer to 1 (+ or -) is a stronger relationship Direction - indicated by sign (+ or -); positive (as 1 variable increases, so does the other); negative (as 1 variable increases, the other decreases) |
| Experiment | Involve manipulating key factors that an investigator thinks are important INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: manipulated factor DEPENDENT VARIABLE: behavior measured *Experiments allow us to determine cause and effect* |
| Observational Learning (Imitation) | Bandura (social cognitive theory) imitation involves motivation and cognitive processes (experience provided self-efficiency), (children begin to believe their own abilities will help them succeed) |
| Jean Piaget (Cognitive Theories) | 4 stage sequence (sensory motor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational) Child scientist and theorist Cognition more sophisticated with age |
| Periods of Prenatal Development | Germinal Period Embryonic Period Fetal Period |
| Germinal Period (Weeks 1-2) | begins when egg is fertilized in fallopian tube 4 days-zygote consists of about 100 cells (blastocyst) cell division continues implantation of blastocyst (no=underdeveloped) development of amnion (in-mem),chorion (out-mem),placenta,umbilical cord |
| Embryonic Period (Weeks 3-8) | Most critical organs are formed 1st Central nervous system, internal organs, muscles, skeleton form External features form: eyes, ears, nose, limbs Heart begins pumping blood, Liver/spleen produce blood, neurons develop quickly (250,000/min) |
| Embryonic Period: 3 Layers of Embryo | Ectoderm - nails, skin (outside) Mesoderm - blood, muscles, heart, kidneys (middle) Endoderm - digestive, respiratory systems (inside) |
| Fetal Period (Week 9 to End of Pregnancy) 1st Trimester | GROWTH By end of 1st trimester: organs, muscles, and nervous system organize external genitals are well formed |
| Fetal Period: 2nd Trimester | Vernix- protects the fetus during long bath in amniotic fluid Mother can feel movement Neurons form synapses (connections to transmit signals between neurons) Sensitivity to sound and light emerges |
| Fetal Period: 3rd Trimester | Fetus reaches age of viability (22-26 weeks) Extensive body growth (fat) Responsiveness to external stimulation increases (movement, hearing, taste) Ability to remember and learn (mother's voice, taste) |
| What is the Fetus Capable of Doing Before Birth? | responding to sound (mother's voice, father's voice, internal sounds) taste what the mother eats movement |
| Maternal Factors in Prenatal Development: EXERCISE | Good to keep mother from stress 3rd trimester = no vigorous activity |
| Maternal Factors in Prenatal Development: NUTRITION | Malnutrition = small weight, brain injury Vitamins = folic acid and iron Spina Bifida if not enough folic acid Can be reduced with support from family and friends |
| Maternal Factors in Prenatal Development: MOTHER'S AGE | Miscarriage Delivery complications Downsyndrome (extra chromosome) |
| Maternal Factors in Prenatal Development: FATHER'S AGE AND TEEN MOTHERS | Father's older age = risk for autism Teen mothers = premature births |
| Effects of Caffeine on the Fetus | Low birth weight |
| Effects of Tobacco on the Fetus | low birth weight miscarriage prematurity cleft lip and palate infant death asthma and cancer later in childhood |
| Effects of Cocaine on the Fetus | Severe problems |
| Effects of Alcohol on the Fetus LEADING CAUSE OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES | 25% of women drink during pregnancy slow physical growth facial abnormalities (short eyelids, thin upper lip) brain injury Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Alcohol Related Neurodevelopment Disorder |
| Teratogens | Any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period Types of teratogens include: drugs, tobacco, alcohol, infectious disease |
| Teratogens: DOSE | larger doses over longer time (negative effects) |
| Teratogens: HEREDITY | genetic makeup of mother; some are better than others to withstand harmful environments |
| Teratogens: NEGATIVE INFLUENCES | several negative factors at once (poor nutrition, no medical care, stress, addictions) |
| Teratogens: AGE | vary with age and time of exposure (baby's age when exposed) |
| Teratogens: SLEEPER EFFECT | child does to school and we discover learning disabilities |
| RUBELLA EFFECTS | measles (heart, eye problems) |
| HIV and AIDS EFFECTS | die at/before age 3 (no immune system) |
| HERPES EFFECTS | miscarriage low birth weight etc. |
| TOXOPLASMOSIS EFFECTS | cause by cat litter |
| Stage 1 of Labor: DILATATION AND EFFACEMENT | Longest stage, 12-24 hours (longer for 1st time moms) Regular contractions start and build up Contractions cause dilation and effacement of cervix |
| Stage 1 of Labor: DILATION AND EFFACEMENT (Phases) | 3 phases: Pre-labor (water (sac) breaks, uterus contracts, baby's head is down) Labor (contractions are more regular for a couple of hours) Transition (contractions more intense, cervix dialtaes (8-10 cm), most painful, no pushing) |
| Stage 2 of Labor: DELIVERY | Lasts 1 hour Contractions now frequent and intense Crowning Push baby through birth canal to delivery Baby's presentation can cause complications |
| Stage 3 of Labor: AFTERBIRTH | Lasts 10-15 minutes Contractions continue with decreasing intensity Placenta and other membranes expelled (if not = infection) |
| Types of Childbirth: Natural/Prenatal | classes relaxation and breathing techniques (mentally and physically reduce pain) labor coach (doula) |
| Types of Childbirth: Medical Interventions | fetal monitoring (make sure baby has a high heartbeat) medication (analgestics, anesthetics) most common pain killer = epidural (can't walk, delay labor) |
| Types of Childbirth: Medical Interventions (continued) | instrument delivery (forceps, vacuum extraction) induced labor (given pitocin to induce labor) cesarean delivery (c-section = awake, emergency c-section = asleep) |
| Birth Complications: ANOXIA | oxygen deprivation at birth brain damage, cognitive, learning problems causes: squeezing of umbilical cord, umbilical cord around neck, failing to breathe after birth c-section - want baby out fast |
| Birth Complications: CEPHALOPELVIC DISPOSITION | baby's head is too big for mother's pelvis (medical) |
| Birth Complications: IRREGULAR POSITIONS | breech - feet/butt first (c-section) transverse - baby is sideways (arm first) |
| Birth Complications Linked to: | agression violence schizophrenia |
| Infant Mortality | relatively high in the united states compared to other industrialized countries WHY? higher rates of abortion lifestyle (working longer, less benefits of having children) |
| Apgar Scale | Access the newborn's physical condition quickly appearance Apgar assessment --health screening test --preformed twice (5 minutes apart) --scores 7 or better: good condition 4-6: baby needs assistance 3 or lower: baby in serious danger |
| Apgar Scale | Table |
| Preterm Baby | born weeks before their due date may be appropriate weight for length of pregnancy can catch up quickly |
| Small-for-Date Baby | may be born at due date or preterm below expected weight for length of pregnancy (higher risk) |
| PRETERM BABY | less weeks in pregnancy = risk of disability more weeks in pregnancy = healthier baby premature baby's can catch u[ by 2nd or 3rd year low birth weight (<3.3 lbs) are at higher risk |
| Apgar Scale Signs | Look For: Heart Rate Respiratory Effort Reflex Irritability Muscle Tone Color |
| Reflex | An action that is performed as a response to a stimulus and without conscious thought Newborn's reflexes prepare them to interact with the world An inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation |
| Types of Reflexes | SURVIVAL - rooting and sucking PROTECTIVE - evoke interaction from caregivers; moro, grasping FOUNDATIONAL - stepping |
| When and why do reflexes disappear? | Most begin to disappear in the early months of life as the brain develops more voluntary control Some reflexes continue to exist |
| Newborn States of Arousal | Degrees of Sleep and Wakefulness Regular (NREM) Sleep - non-rapid eye movement sleep; deep sleep Irregular (REM) Sleep - rapid eye movement sleep; movement Drowsiness - state before sleep Quiet Alertness Waking activity and Crying |
| Baby Cries | Baby's cry because they are communicating; want food, attention, diaper change, discomfort, tired Baby's mostly cry for food |
| Frequency of Sleep in Newborns | Baby's can sleep for 17 hours (driven by hunger, not light) Newborns spend half their time in REM sleep As infants get older and their brain develops they start to sleep for longer periods of time |
| SIDS | Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Leading cause of infant mortality between 1 week and 12 months in industrialized nations Its occurrence tends to peak between 2 and 4 months of age, when reflexes decline |
| Reducing SIDS | Quit smoking and taking drugs Put babies to sleep on their backs Remove soft bedding |
| State of Smell, Taste, and Touch on Newborns | Reflexive response to touch Sensitive to pain Prefer sweet tastes at birth Quickly learn to like new tastes Display odor preferences from birth Can locate odors and identify mother by smell from birth |
| Hearing and Visual Abilities of Infants | Can hear a variety of sounds at birth Prefer complex sounds to pure tones Learn sound patterns within days Sensitive to voices, and biologically prepared to learn language |
| Hearing and Visual Abilities of Infants (Continued) | Vision least developed of senses at birth Unable to see long distances or focus clearly Scans environment and tries to track interesting objects Color vision becomes adult like after 4 months |
| Transition to Parenthood: PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES | oxytocin = breasts "let down" milk, heightens the mothers responsiveness to baby fathers = 30% decrease in testosterone parent-infant relationship does not depend in immediate bonding |
| Transition to Parenthood | Gender roles may become more traditional (mothers=inside; fathers=outside) Sharing caregiving predicts greater happiness and sensitivity to the baby (both share responsibilities) Postponing parenthood until late 20s or 30s eases transition |
| Postpartum Depression Frequency | 8-10% of mothers experience chronic depression 3-5% of fathers also report depression after the birth of a child |
| Postpartum Depression | Parental depression can have serious negative effects on all domains of child development Early treatment is VITAL |
| Risks of Postpartum Depression | single mother no family/friend support past experience with depression |
| Baby Blues | Depression symptoms of caregivers: crying for no reason irritable resentment toward baby It is normal and should go away within a couple of months |
Created by:
mickey2230
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